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LIPPINCOTT'S 
FARM LIFE TEXT SERIES 

EDITED BY 

KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

Horticulture 



LiPPiNCOTT's Farm Manuals 

Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D., Knapp School of Country Life, Nashville, Tenn. 

PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY 1922 
By GEORGE E. DAY, B.S.A. 

PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY 1921 

By harry R. lewis, M.Agr. 

PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY 1920 
By carl W. gay, D.V.M., B.S.A. 

PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING 1917 
By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. 

PRODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING 1918 
By JOHN W. LLOYD. M.S.A. 

PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARxM ANIMALS 1921 
Bv F. W. WOLL. Ph.D. 

COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS 1919 
By R. a. CRAIG, D.V.M. 

PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS 1922 
By E. G. MONTGOMERY, M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING 1918 
By frank C. PELLETT 

PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING 1922 

By R. M. WASHBURN, M.S.A. 

INJURIOUS INSECTS AND USEFUL BIRDS 1918 
By F. L. WASHBURN, M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY 1918 
By WALTER C. COFFEY, M.S. 

PRODUCTIVE SMALL FRUIT CULTURE 1920 

By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. 

PRODUCTIVE SOILS 1920 

By WILBERT W. WEIR, M.S. 

LIPPINCOTT'S COLLEGE TEXTS 

SOIL PHYSICS AND MANAGEMENT 1919 
By J. G. MOSIER, B.S., A. F. GUSTAFSON, M.S. 

FARM LIFE TEXT SERIES 

APPLIED ECONOMIC BOTANY 1919 
By MELVILLE T. COOK. Ph.D. 

PRODUCTIVE PLANT HUSBANDRY 1918 
By KARY C. DAVIS 

HORTICULTURE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS 1922 
By KARY C. DAVIS 

PRODUCTIVE SOILS Abridged Edition 1920 
By WILBERT W. WEIR, M.S. 

VOCATIONAL CHEMISTRY 1921 

By J. J. WILLAMAN 

LABORATORY MANUALS AND NOTEBOOKS 

ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS 

SOILS, By I. F.EASTMAN and K. C. DAVIS I9I5- POULTRY, By H. R. LEWIS 1918 

BAIRYING, By E. L. ANTHONY 1917. FEEDING. By F. W. WOLL igr?. 

FARM CROPS, By F. W. LATHROP 1920. 




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Farm Life Text Series 

EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

HORTICULTURE 

A TEXT BOOK FOR HIGH 
SCHOOLS AND NORMALS 

INCLUDING PLANT PROPAGATION; PLANT 
BREEDING; GARDENING; ORCHARDING; 
SMALL FRUIT GROWING; FORESTRY; BEAU- 
TIFYING HOME GROUNDS; THE SOILS AND 
ENEMIES INVOLVED 



BY 
KARY CADMUS DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE. KNAPP SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGK 

FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE; AUTHOR OF PRODUCTIVE FARMING; 

EDITOR OF LIPPINCOTT'S FARM MANUAL SERIES, ETC. 



287 ILLUSTRATIONS 




PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 






COPYRIGHT, I9I9 BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 
COPYBIQHT, 1922 BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



Eleclrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company 
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



Dffi27?2 

SC1A692743 






X3 FOREWORD 

TEXT-books should keep pace with the best educational thought. 
Too often they fail to do this; but when they do, educators may be 
expected to take advantage of this fact. The writer believes that 
the rapid establishment of high school courses of agriculture, due 
in part to the federal fund from the Smith-Hughes act, has made 
a demand for a single text book of horticulture suited to High 
Schools and Normals. 

Purposes.— It is believed that the present text, combining as it 
does the subject of gardening, orcharding, and small fruits, will 
help solve several school problems: (1) It will save the instructor 
much time which might otherwise be spent in trying to seek out 
and formulate a suitable course in Horticulture. (2) It will save 
thetimeof the class for a better balanced agricultural course instead 
of putting a term each on plant propagation, gardening, orchard- 
ing, and small fruits. (3) It will obviate the necessity of students 
purchasing three or four books to cover the horticultural field. 
(4) It will offer subject matter for a school year where that much 
tune can be allowed for it, or it may easily be condensed, by omit- 
ting a few chapters and some suggested lines of work, to one-half 
year. 

Contents. — In the present volume six chapters are devoted to 
preliminary studies and plant propagation; six chapters to vege- 
table gardening; six chapters to various phases of orcharding; four 
chapters to small fruits, nuts, etc.; one chapter to the home wood 
lot and forestry ; and one each to soil improvement, the home and 
school grounds, weeds, and birds. 

It is believed this division of the subject of horticulture should 
meet the needs of students in High Schools, special Agricultural 
Schools, and Normals. Should any chapter seem to be superfluous 
in the course being pursued by any students, the instructor should 
feel free to omit such chapter or let it be gone over rapidly as 
review matter. 

The arrangement of chapters should be changed by the instruc- 
tor to suit the time of year when students are making the study. 
For example, the subject of hotbeds and coldframes should be 



vi FOREWORD 

taken up preferably in winter or early spring when their use is 
seasonable. Suit all studies to the season when possible. 

Exercises and Projects. — The newer trend in agricultural 
teaching is to make the study as concrete and practical as possible. 
To aid in this as far as possible the present volume offers numerous 
suggestions for questionnaires, surveys, local investigations, prac- 
ticums, field and laboratory exercises, field trips, home projects, 
reports, etc. These will be found at the close of the chapters. 
They are suggestive enough so that the thoughtful instructor may 
easily adapt them to his local conditions. In many cases he will 
omit some and perhaps add others. Where the school equipment 
is very limited the suggestions for home exercises and home pro- 
jects should all be followed and others added. 

Chapters on seasonal suggestions, XIV, XV, and XXVI, 
should be of much aid in conducting home projects either by 
students or other practical growers. 

Illustrations. — No picture is given for embellishment, but each 
illustration is intended to teach something to the student. The 
figures are to bring to the mind more clearly some of the lessons of 
the text. 

Questions are given at the close of each chapter. These are 
not merely for review, but also to extend the thought of the stu- 
dent to his own local conditions and surroundings. They might be 
called ''thought questions." 

Acknowledgements. — The Author wishes to extend his grate- 
ful acknowledgements to many specialists in horticulture, agri- 
culture, and agricultural education who have materially aided in 
the production of this volume. The bulletins of many such spe- 
cialists have been freely offered and their lessons embodied in this 
text. Illustrations have been supplied by many who have used 
their special knowledge in producing the photographs. Credit is 
given the different experiment stations under the cuts. 

Thanks are especially due to Prof. A. V. Storm of the Univer- 
sity of Minnesota, who first suggested the general plan of such a 
text and who has critically gone over the contents of the book, both 
before and after manuscript was written. 

Mrs. K. C. Davis has made pen and ink drawings for many of 
the illustrations, and has read and criticised the manuscript and 
proof sheets. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Plant Life 1 

II. Propagation of Plants by Means of Seeds 10 

III. Principles op Plant Breeding and Their Application in 

G.ARDEN and Orchard 22 

IV. Propagation by Underground Parts 33 

V. Cuttings and Layerings 39 

VI. Budding and Grafting 49 

VII. The Home Vegetable Garden 61 

VIII. Hotbeds, Coldframes, and Flower Pits 81 

IX. Tender and Hardy Vegetables 89 

X. Cool Season Vegetables of Early Spring and Fall.. . . 95 

XI. Cool Season Vegetables that Endure Summer Heat. . . 106 

XII. Warm Season Vegetables 121 

XIII. Potatoes 132 

XIV. Suggestions for Garden Work by Months for Northern 

States 146 

XV. Suggestions for Garden Work by Months in Southern 

States 157 

XVI. The Home Orchard — Apple, Pear, Quince 173 

XVII. Enemies of the Apple, Pear, and Quince 195 

XVIII. The Peach Orchard 203 

XIX. Cherries and Plums 222 

XX. Strawberries 233 

XXI. Grapes 241 

XXII. Bush Fruits in the Home Garden 252 

XXIII. Nuts and Subtropical Fruits 270 

XXIV. Legumes and Fertilizers— ^Soil Amendments 286 

XXV. Principles of Spraying 303 

XXVI. Work by Seasons in the Orchard, Fruit Garden, and 

the Home Grounds 329 

XXVII. Control of Weeds 347 

XXVIII. The Home Wood Lot 355 

XXIX. Beautifying Home Grounds 366 

XXX. Attracting Birds 384 

Appendix Tables 390 



HORTICULTURE 



CHAPTER I 
PLANT LIFE 

Before taking up the special problems of gardening and fruit 
growing, let us make a rapid survej^ of the broader phases of 
plant life. 

Importance of Plants. — All human life, and indeed, all animal 
life is dependent upon plants for sustenance. Most plants are able 
to obtain their nourishment from soil and air. The food thus 
produced is stored in the form of fruits, vegetables, and other crops, 
and is used for the maintenance of men and lower animals. 

Without plants no animal life could long exist; as animals are 
not able to obtain their nourishment directly from soil and air alone. 

Conditions for Plant Growth. — Because of the great value of 
plant growth to human life, it is quite necessary that we study 
carefully the needs of all plants and the special needs of all our 
crop plants. 

The needs of plants may be grouped under six heads: (1) 
warmth, (2) moisture, (3) food supply, (4) air, (5) light, (6) free- 
dom from enemies. If we are able to supply the best conditions 
under each of these heads we will secure the greatest crops. The 
great problems of gardening and orcharding are to place the grow- 
ing plants in such favorable conditions. 

Warmth; Temperature. — Plants are not alike in their temper- 
ature requirements. Some grow in cold regions where snow and 
ice surround them. Others are found in torrid regions where frost 
never occurs. Wide differences are seen in the warmth required 
by our fruits and vegetables in the temperate zone. Lemons, 
oranges, certain grapes, and bananas can endure very little, if any 
freezing weather, even in the dormant season. Peaches are more 
easily winter-killed than apples and pears. Garden peas and let- 
tuce can endure cold, frosty weather, and do not thrive well in hot 
weather. Melons and beans prefer the hot weather. (Chapter IX) . 

1 



2 PLANT LIFE 

Moisture. — With respect to their water-loving habits plants* 
have been classified into three societies: Xerophytes, or desert 
plants, such as cactus, sage brush and mesquite. (2) Hydro- 
phytes, or water-loving plants, as pond lily, cat-tail, water cress, 
and algae. (3) Mesophytes, or mid-region plants, such as most of 
our garden, orchard, and farm plants. 

The desert-loving plants have very extended root systems with 
which to obtain moisture; and have limited leaf surface, and very 
leathery covering to reduce evaporation. 

Water-loving plants have much more leaf surface than root 
surface. Some have no true roots. 

The mid-region plants differ widely in their endurance of and 
requirements for water. The quince, for example, has shallow 
roots and can be made to grow on ground that is too wet for the 
peach (Chapter XVI). 

Plant Food Supply. — Plants of the farm, garden, and orchard 
secure about five per cent of their food from the soil and the other 
ninety-five per cent from the air. Plants take mineral matter from 
the soil and organic matter from the air. That taken from the soil 
limits or controls the growth more than the other. In other words, 
the soil supply is more limited than the air supply. If the mineral 
supply is increased the plant can take more organic matter from 
the air. There is practically no limit to the supply of organic mat- 
ter which plants can take from the air, except that enough mineral 
matter must be taken from the soil to keep up the proper ratio of 
about one to nineteen, to suit the plant. 

If a gardener increases the available plant food in the garden 
soil the crop, in using that, will also use about nineteen times as 
much from the air — with no additional cost to the grower. 

The growers problems are: (1) to keep up the supply of plant 
food in the soil, (2) to make it available, (3) to make the soil con- 
ditions so favorable that the plant can secure the food, (4) to keep 
other plants, as weeds, from robbing this food supply from the crop. 

Plants Need Air. — Most of our crop plants need only the oxy- 
gen and carbon dioxide found in all air, but the legumes, such as 
clover, peas, and beans, also secure nitrogen either directly or indi- 
rectly from the air. (Chapter XXIV). Experiments with plants 
grown without a proper supply of air show conclusively that plants 
must have a normal supply of these components of the air. 

How Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Are Obtained. — All the green- 
leaf plants breathe air into their leaves and green parts of their 



GERMINATION OF SEEDS 3 

stems. They retain such parts of this as they may require. In 
daylight they retain chiefly the carbon dioxide and a part of this is 
usted to make starch and sugar in the cells of the leaves. The sur- 
plus oxj'gen is given off to the air again, (Exercise I.) At night 
the plant uses more oxygen than carbon dioxide. It then breathes 
off the latter into the air. 

Light Requirements. — As just stated, the presence of light is 
necessary for the making of starch and sugar in plant cells. The 
green color bodies called chlorophyll, are also necessary. A green 
plant, growing in the sunlight, is truly a starch and sugar factory. 
The products of this factory are used by the plant to build up the 
tissues, and this is called growth. We see then, how essential sun- 
light is to plant growth. 

Leaf Function and Structure. — The leaves may be considered 
as both the breathing organs and digestive organs of plants. There 
are numerous openings, or mouths, called stomates, more numerous 
on the under surfaces of leaves. Through these the air contain- 
ing oxygen and carbon dioxide is admitted and the by-products are 
given off. In the daylight the chief waste is oxygen, because "food 
getting" exceeds the "breathing," In the darkness the chief 
waste is carbon dioxide, because "breathing" exceeds ''food 
getting." 

The soft cells inside the leaf are provided with many small 
bodies bearing green chlorophyll. This gives the green color to the 
leaf. The upper and lower layers of epidermis are composed of 
transparent cells through which the light passes readily. The layer 
of cells just beneath the upper epidermis are arranged in a columnar 
way as shown in the figure, and are called palisade cells. The 
others are more irregular and have spaces between them for the 
access of air which bathes the cells. All the thin-walled cells bear- 
ing chlorophyll, inside the leaves, are called parenchjnna cells. 
The essential parts of a typical leaf are shown in figure 1. 

Freedom from Enemies. — Among the conditions necessary for 
plant growth is freedom from insect enemies, plant diseases, and 
weeds. For the best growth of garden and fruit crops, enemies of 
all kinds must be kept in check. Each of these classes of enemies 
is discussed in other chapters. 

Germination of Seeds. — The first growth from seeds is called 
germination. The term "sprouting' ' more properly refers to break- 
ing through the ground by this early growth. The seed contains 
the minute parts of the young plant. There is a store of plant food 



4 PLANT LIFE 

either (1) in the seed leaves, as in beans and peas, or (2) surround- 
ing the parts of the plant, as in morning-glory seed. This store of 
nourishment provides for the growth of the plant until it has devel- 
oped enough to get its nourishment from the soil and air. 

Best Conditions for Germination. — A proper amount of moist- 
ure is necessary to soften the seed coats and to provide for the cir- 
culation of food which the seed contains. With many kinds of 
seeds, such as melons, carrots, parsnips, salsify, celery, apple and 
others, it is a very great aid to germination to soak the seeds in 
water for a few hours before planting. Moisture is easily brought 
to seeds through the soil when planted, if the soil is firmed. This 
may be done with the foot, hoe, or planting board. On large fields 
farmers do this with rollers. 



anQQ^SSSSSS 




Fig. 1. — Cross section of leaf showing thick epidermis at top,' columnar cells, loose 
parenchyma cells with air spaces, as at A ; thin epidermis below with breathing mouth or 
stomate, S. 

In the cases of radish, lettuce, garden peas, onions, and others 
which endure frost well, the seeds will germinate at rather low tem- 
peratures. For this reason early garden crops may be planted in 
early spring before the soil has become very warm. 

On the other hand, such seeds as corn, beans, tomato, and melon 
will germinate much better if the soil is rather warm. It is partly 
for this reason that such crops are started late in the spring. 

Air in the soil is necessary for the best germination of seeds. 
They will not start well in soils that are so wet as to exclude the 
air. A seed bed should be so well loosened by plowing or spading 
as to allow the free access of air. See exercise 5. 

Parts of the Plant. — As the young plant grows it soon develops 
roots, stem, and leaves. The roots serve to hold the plant in place 



HOW ROOTS ABSORB FOOD 5 

and to secure plant food from the soil. The stem is to raise the 
leaves up to the light and air. There are many forms of stems. 
See the cross-section of a woody stem in figure 2. Many vines 
bring their leaves up to the light bj^ climbing on supports of vari- 
ous kinds. Running vines extend the plant over larger areas to 
seek more air and light. Trees and other plants with rigid stems 
grow tall in competition with other plants near them. If they 
grow in more open places with less competition, they may become 
more branched and their arms often 

reach horizontally a long distance ' . [ ^^-^_^ 

into the air. v5>^ N^ \ 

The purposes of leaves are (1) ^' j 

to expose the green chlorophyll of ' — ■\--'^' 

the plant to the sunlight, (2) to / V "^ 

" breathe " carbon dioxide and oxy- 1 '. k'--i\ 

gen, and (3) to manufacture starch \ / I 

and sugar. The work of leaves has ^^ / 

already been described. X.»^_^ , •' . I 

Important Work of Roots and | ^"^^^ J 

Root-hairs. — The chief purpose of 

, , 1 • ^ J. ^ • £ 1 r Fig. 2. — Cross section of woody stem ; 

plant roots is to take m lOOCl irom „, heart wood; b, sap wood; f, cam- 

the soil. The root-hairs are far the ^;!,rer°bafk°"'°^ '"''"= ''" "°" '''"'"'' 
most effective in this work. The 

plant food taken in by roots must be in solution in the films of 
soil water which cling around the grains of soil. 

The root-hairs are very numerous on the smaller rootlets, 
particularly on the young groAvth. They form a velvety covering 
of the roots and greatly increase the absorbing surface. (Fig. 3.) 
It is through the root-hairs that all, or nearly all of the food from 
the soil is taken into the plant. 

How Roots Absorb Food. — Liquids may pass through a mem- 
brane by a process called osmosis. When two liquids are separated 
by a membrane they tend to trade places and mingle with each 
other. The thinner liquid passes through the membrane faster 
than the denser liquid. 

The soil water, containing some plant food in solution will thus 
enter the plant through the root membrane. A little waste mate- 
rial from the cell sap will escape at the same time. This trade of 
the two liquids through the surface of the root is necessary for the 
growth of the plant. If there be enough moisture in the soil the 
flow inward far exceeds the out-go, and growth will be rapid. When 



PLANT LIFE 



the soil is very dry growth is retarded, and in extreme cases the 
plant may actually lose as much or more than it receives. Then 
it will wilt and may die. Rainfall or irrigation will dilute the plant 
food in the soil and thus rapidly increase the osmotic action through 
the roots. Growth is thus greatly increased. Try an exercise as 
described under figure 4. 

Plant Food. — The plant requires a number of elements which 
it gets from the soil, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potas- 
sium (K), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), iron (Fe). 

The first four of these are most likely to become deficient in any 



Fig. 3. 




Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 



-Root huirs form on all young roots except at the tip. They greatly increase the 
absorbing surface of the roots. 

—Osmosis apparatus. A funnel tube with mouth closed by an animal membrane 
then filled with thick syrup and suspended in water. 



garden or farm soil. Usually they must be replenished by the 
grower. 

Other elements required by the plant that are taken largely 
from the air, as already described, are oxygen (O), carbon (C), and 
hydrogen (H) . Really the oxygen and hydrogen are taken chiefly 
in the form of water (H2O) which enters the soil from the air and 
is then taken up liy the roots. 

Evaporation from Leaves. — As the plant food from the soil 
must be very dilute at the time it is taken in by the roots, it is 



THE PREPARATION FOR WINTER 



evident that much surplus water is taken into the plant. This 
water aids in the circulation of foods in the plant. All that is not 
needed is evaporated from the leaves into the air. This process 
is called transpiration of water. This takes place through the 
little mouths or stomates which are so abundant on the lower 
surfaces of leaves. 

Importance of Leaves. — The great importance of the leaf 
growth on all our common leaf-bearing plants may be understood 
when we realize that (1) the leaves make the starches, sugars, and 
similar products for the plants, constituting about ninety-five per 
cent of the food of the plant. (2) It is through the leaves that the 
necessary breathing takes place. (Fig. 5.) 
(3) The leaves give off to the air the surplus 
water no longer needed by the plant. 

The increasing of leaf growth which is to 
accomplish all of these purposes, is often the 
main efforts of the orchardist and gardener. 
The use of manure and nitrogenous fertilizers 
aids in the leaf growth. Leaf-eating insects 
must be kept in control to prevent the de- 
struction of leaves. Pruning may direct the 
growth in the best parts of the plant. 

Bud Formation. — On all plants the leaves 
are formed from the unfolding of buds. On 
the woody plants the buds are formed chiefly . . 

,, , i> 1 mi c ii Fio.5. — A self-sustaining 

m the angles oi leaves, ihey lorni on the new aquarium; balanced with 
g^o^Yth of shoots in spring and early summer, aliTwatlr aSafs to^sn^ 
soon after the leaves of that year are well de- p^^ '^'''''°° '^'°'^^'^- 
veloped. They become more plump later in the year, and really 
prepare for winter during the last half of the summer season. 

The preparation for winter of fruit trees and other woody plants, 
usually consists of all or nearly all of the following processes: (1) 
Buds are formed and covered with winter scales for protection 
from changes of weather. (2) Hairy or waxy growth is provided 
to keep out water and ice. (3) In the fall the leaves drop off and 
the leaf scars are sealed with a corky growth. (4) The green parts 
of the twigs form thicker bark. (5) The breathing pores on the 
twigs become closed with corky growth called lenticle spots. (6) 
The buds and twigs become drier by the retreat of sap. (7) The 
starch and other forms of stored plant-food become fixed in the 
buds, pith, and elsewhere. 




8 PLANT LIFE 

Two Kinds of Buds. — Nearly all woody plants, notably the 
fruit trees and shrubs, form two kinds of buds — one kind for the 
formation of flowers and fruit and another for the growth of shoots 
next year. 

These two kinds often differ in appearance enough so that the 
fruit grower may be able to distinguish between them in the autumn 
and winter. This is notably true on such trees as peaches, plums, 
and cherries. The fruit buds are usually shorter or more plump 
and are less tapering at the point. On these trees there may be 
one or two fruit buds formed in the same leaf-angle as a shoot bud. 
Thus if we see two or more buds located together on the sides of 
twigs, at least one of each group is likely to produce fruit. The 
grower can often foretell the prospect for fruit. 

FIELD AND LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Oxygen from Plants. — In a glass jar of water let a large supply of algse 
or other water plants be placed for growth. Over the plants invert a glass 
funnel and a test tube or bottle in a manner to catch the oxygen given off by 
the plants. Place the jar in a sunny place for a few hours and test for the pres- 
ence of oxygen in the bottle by the use of a glowing splinter. What has been 
taking place? 

2. Disappearance of Chlorophyll. — Place a board over some green grass so 
as to exclude the light for a few days. Then note the change in color of the grass 
Will crops growing in shaded places make as much growth as those in the light? 
Name some plants that endure shade well. 

3. Effect of Available Plant Food. — Compare growth of plants of the same 
kinds on poor soils and rich soils. What are the chief differences? From which 
would you prefer to save seeds? 

4. Structure of Leaves. — If a strong microscope is available, mount in 
water on a glass slip a piece of epidermis torn from a leaf. Try several kinds. 
Study the stomates and the chlorophyll-bearing cells. Also make cross-sec- 
tions by placing the leaf between two pieces of pith and cutting with a razor. 
Thin sections will show under the microscope somewhat as shown in figure 1. 

5. Exercises in germination may be devised to show the best conditions 
for seed growth. After reading the conditions in this chapter, try them by 
germinating seeds under as many conditions as you can find to show the effects 
of proper moisture, warmth, and air. 

6. Osmosis. — Try some experiments to show osmotic action. (1) Arrange 
an apparatus as shown in figure 4. Have water in the large glass and a strong 
sugar syrup in the funnel tube. The membrane tied closely over the funnel 
mouth may be from a bladder or from a large intestine used over a piece of 
sausage. The funnel tube may be extended to any height desired by connect- 
ing more glass tubitng through short pieces of rubber tubing. (2) An exercise 
with egg osmosis is described in Chapter I of Productive Farming. Repeat 
this. (3) Soak a withered potato or apple in water and explain the results. 
Soak a fresh apple in strong syrup and explain why it shrivels. 

7. Nitrogen in Air. — Invert a glass jar full of air, with the mouth immersed 
in a vessel of water over which is floating a large cork supporting a small burn- 
ing candle. The candle will continue to burn for a short time in the jar of air 
and the water will slowly rise in the jar. When the flame goes out because of 



QUESTIONS 9 

the exhaustion of the oyxgen, calculate what fraction of the air still remains. 
This is chiefly nitrogen. After the fumes dissolve in the water study the color 
and other properties of the nitrogen. 

8. Properties of phosphorus and potassium should be studied by follow- 
ing directions given in some elementary book on chemistry . 

9. A collection of fertilizer materials should be made by getting samples 
from dealers. Study these as to appearance, composition, and other properties 
Put the samples in bottles and label plainly. 

10. Leaf Structure. — If a compound microscope is available let each stu- 
dent study the structure of leaves by first making sections and mounting them 
in water on glass shps. Surface views should also be mounted to study the 
stomates. 

11. Bud formation on fruit trees should be observed during the spring 
season while the leaves and shoots are growing. How soon can you detect the 
new buds for the following year? Why are they formed so early? 

12. Preparation for Winter. — -Try to find on trees all the seven methods 
mentioned in this chapter by which the tree prepares for winter. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Mention the conditions which influence the growth of plants. 

2. What can you say of their temperature requirements? 

3. What are the three plant societies when classified with reference to moist- 

ure? 

4. How could you prove that plants need air? How do they get it? 

5. Describe examples you have observed showing the light requirements of 

plants. 

6. What is the office of chloropyll? Where is it found? 

7. What are the best conditions for germination? 

8. What are the uses of roots? 

9. Describe an experiment to show osnaosis, and give its analogy to plant 

life. 

10. What are the four most essential elements required in fertiUzing soils? 

11. Trace the function of water in the growth of plants. 

12. How do trees prepare for winter? 

13. How can you distinguish between fruit buds and shoot buds on a plum or 

peach tree? 

References. — Foundations of Botany, Bergen, Ginn & Co.; Botany for 
Secondary Schools, Bailey, Macmillan Co.; Applied Economic Botany, 
Mel. T. Cook, J. B. Lippincott Co. 



CHAPTER II 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS BY MEANS OF SEEDS 

Nearly all farm, garden, and orchard plants are of the seed- 
producing type. Other plants that do not produce seeds are rep- 
resented by mushrooms, mosses, and ferns. These bear spores in- 
stead of seeds. A true seed contains the embryo of the plant which 
it is to produce. Spores do not contain plant embryos. 

Why Seeds Are Produced. — There are several reasons for the 
production of seeds. 

1. Seeds will live over winter better than the plants themselves. 
Many plants, called annuals, die in the autumn and their kind 
live over winter only in the seed form. Examples of this group are 
tomatoes, com, beans, melons and many other farm and garden 
plants familiar to all. 

2. Seeds are borne also for the purpose of increasing the num.- 
ber of plants. The number of seeds produced by a single plant is 
indeed surprising. If we count the number of seeds borne by one 
strawberry and multiply that l^y the number of berries on the 
plant in a season, we will find the product running up into many 
thousands. Similar results will be found with nearly all plants. 
Take the tomato, squash, watermelon, cucumber, blackberry and 
currant as examples. 

3. By bearing seeds which are easily distributed, plants provide 
for their spread over extended areas. With many kinds of seeds 
there are edible portions, as berries and other fruits and vege- 
tables. The edible portion induces animals to carry them away 
for food and thus spread the seeds. Some seeds, as carrots, par- 
snips, lettuce and others, are carried by the wind or will float on 
water to distant places. 

How Seeds Are Produced. — Flowers of some kind must always 
precede the bearing of seeds. In other words, flowers produce the 
seeds. The essential parts of the flower are the stamens and pistil. 
The seeds are borne by the pistil as a result of the pollen growth 
after reaching the pistil. (Fig. 6.) 

Other parts of the flower are the more or less leafy growth 
around the stamens and pistil. These are the petals and sepals and 
are not found in all flowers. They may serve to protect the essen- 
tial parts or to attract insects. 
10 



METHODS OF POLLINATION 



11 



Flowers of Several Types.^ — In some cases the stamens and 
pistils are borne in separate flowers, as in the case of Indian corn, 
cucumbers, melons, oaks, walnuts, and many others. These are 
monoecious flowers. In other cases the two kinds of flowers are on 
different plants and are then called dicccious. Familiar examples 
are paper mulberry, willow, poplar, and muscadine grapes. In 
such cases only the pistillate plants bear seeds. 

When stamens and pistils are in the same flowers, the flowers 
are called perfect. (Fig. 6) We find perfect flowers in peaches, 
plums, apples, pears, quinces, and the common bush fruits. Straw- 




Fia. 6. — Section of perfect flower showing pistil in center with growth from pollen grain 
reaching the ovule. Stamens shed the pollen. Petals and sepals serve as protection and 
sometimes attract insects to carry pollen. 

berries have perfect flowers in structure but in many varieties the 
stamens do not develop pollen which wiU grow on reaching the pis- 
tils. Such varieties must have others growing near them which 
have good pollen. (Chapter XX). 

Methods of Pollination. — When flowers have both stamens 
and pistils they may be self-pollinated and this is very frequently 
the case. But there are very many varieties of orchard fruits in 
which the pollen does not grow well on pistils of the same variety. 
Thus Ave get better crops of fruit if several varieties of apples which 
blossom at the same time, are grown together. This is often true 
of peaches, pears and plums (Fig. 7). 



12 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS BY MEANS OF SEEDS 



There are several distinct plans in nature to prevent self-pol- 
lination even in flowers which have both essential organs. These 
plans are to help enforce cross-pollination. 

1. The stamens may scatter their pollen before the pistil is 
ready to receive pollen. 

2. The pistil may be mature first and may have received its 
pollen from another flow^er before the stamens in its own flower 
have shed any pollen. 




Fig. 7. — Bees aid in pollination of fruit blossoms. A bee hive was placed under this 
tree at blossom time, thus producing a heavy crop. (California Station.) 

3. In erect flowers, sometimes the stamens are lower than tlie 
pistil so the pollen does not fall readily upon the stigma of the pistil. 

4. In flowers which droop, sometimes the stamens are so much 
longer than the pistil that the pollen falls away from the pistil in- 
stead of upon it. 

Cross-Pollination. — Not only is cross-pollination necessary in 
the four plans mentioned above, but also in the many kinds which 
have the stamens and pistils in separate flowers. 



. UNDER-GROUND SEEDS 13 

There is considerable cross-pollination in nearly all flowers. 
In many cases, as orchard fruits already mentioned, the pollen car- 
ried from one plant to another may be more likely to grow well. 

How Pollen Is Carried. — There are two general methods by 
which pollen may be carried from one flower to another, whether 
these be on the same plant or on different plants, viz., (1) by insects 
(Fig. 7) and (2) by wind. Of course pollen may be carried by 
hand on a soft brush. This is often done in greenhouses, and where 
crossing of two kinds is desired. 

Pollination by Insects. — When insects, such as honey bees, are 
in search of nectar or pollen itself, they visit many flowers of the 
same kind and carry pollen from one to another. The pollen on 
their bodies and appendages is rubbed against the stigma of the 
pistil and the cross-pollination is complete. 

Flowers which insects like to visit have (1) sticky or heavy pol- 
len, (2) are show}^ by having colored sepals or petals, or (3) bear 
nectar, and (4) are often fragrant. Usually all four of these 
characters are found in flowers pollinated by insects. Common 
fruit blossoms are nearly all examples of this type of flowers. 

Pollination by Wind. — When the pollen is to be carried by the 
wind it becomes dry and powderj^ and is comparatively light. The 
flowers have no need for being showy and no nectar or fragrance 
is found. Corn, grasses, some small grains, plantain, and many 
weeds are examples of flowers pollinated by wind. 

Under-ground Pollination. — There are a few plants, as the 
violet, which bear two kinds of perfect flowers. The showy flowers 
which we commonly see in the spring, and others borne under the 
ground later in the season. These are small, closed buds and pol- 
lination takes place within them. Later the seed pods of the violet 
project above ground in order to spread the seed. (Fig. 8). Other 
plants which bear this type of hidden flowers are the hog-peanut, 
dalibarda and fringed wintergreen. Such flowers are called cleisto- 
gamous, meaning hidden-union. In such cases nature enforces self- 
pollination. 

Under-ground Seeds. — Most seeds are borne in the air, but 
the peanut is a common exception to this rule. In this plant the 
showy flowers are staminate and are borne well up on the stems. 
Nearer the ground there are small pistillate flowers. After the 
pollen growth has fertilized these small flowers, the flower stem 
elongates and they are thrust down into the ground, where the 
pods and seeds will mature. 



14 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS BY MEANS OF SEEDS 



Growth of Seeds. — After pollen grows in the pistil the union 
with the young seed cells (ovules) is called fertilization. Rapid 
development of the seeds then takes place. It is a rather brief 
period from the time of this fertilization until the seeds are of full 
size. The garden pea develops seeds in a few days or a few weeks 
after blossoming. In the bush fruits this growth is rapid. Winter 
varieties of apples require nearly the whole season. 

While the plant is developing the seed crop, much attention 
must be given it. Good tillage and plenty of available plant food 
are both desirable. It is a critical time in the life of the plant and 




Fig. 8. — Cleistogamous or hidden blossoms at the base of a violet clump, (U. S. D. A.) 

many crops of fruit and seeds are reduced by improper conditions 
during this time. 

Store of Nourishment in Seeds. — The plant stores up a consid- 
erable amount of nourishment in its seed crop. This explains why 
the maturing of seeds is so devitalizing to the plant. 

The food stored in seeds sustains the life of the young plant 
until it is able to obtain nourishment through its roots and leaves. 
It is because of this store of nourishment that we use seeds of so 
many kinds for human food and for stock feed. 

SAVING GARDEN SEEDS 

Gardeners, both young and old, should save garden seeds more 
systematically. In many cases much better results can be obtained 
if we save seeds from our own gardens. 



SEED SOURCES IN AMERICA 15 

Seed Selection. — In deciding just what seeds to save some at- 
tention must be given to the points desired in the crops. With 
many varieties of corn, tomatoes, beans, peas, and others, earhness 
is very desirable. Mark those plants which mature the crop in 
least time and save seed from those. Other qualities in tomatoes 
are proportion of flesh to seed pulp, smoothness of surface, color of 
fruits, and resistance to disease. 

In all crops choose seeds from the best and the next crop will be 
much improved. 

Securing the Seed Crop. — When the gardener has decided what 
specimens are best for seeds he may mark them by tying strips of 
white cloth to the stems where they are growing. If the fruits are 
pulpy, as in the case of tomatoes, watermelons, squash, cucumber 
and others, the seeds may be easily washed from the pulp in a pan 
of water. The use of a sieve or strainer will help. When clean, 
spread the seeds out on papers in a sunny place until dry. Then 
put them into envelopes or pockets of folded paper. Properly label 
each lot and make such memoranda notes as desired. 

Dry seeds, such as corn, radish, lettuce, onions, and others may 
be put into their envelopes right from the garden. 

Storing Seeds. — Suitable places for storing seeds may be found 
in every home. They must be sealed in envelopes or boxes or these 
containers may be put into cans or jars with tightly fitting covers. 
This will keep out weevils, moths and mice. 

They should be stored in a very dry place. Near a chimney in 
the attic may be best. After all surplus moisture has dried away, 
freezing does not hurt them. 

Infested with Pests. — When seeds or stored products become 
infested with weevils, moths, or similar pests, they should be treated 
very early with carbon bisulfid. Put the seeds into a vessel that 
can be tightly closed. Set a small open dish containing the 
liquid in the top of the seed chamber and close it quickly. Use one 
teaspoonful to a space of two gallons or less. Or use one pint to 
about one thousand cubic feet. Keep the container closed for sev- 
eral hours, say over night. The liquid evaporates and penetrates 
all the space, killing every living insect. The eggs may hatch after- 
ward and a second treatment may be necessary. This may be 
done about two weeks later. Have no flame near when the treat- 
ment is started, as the carbon bisulfid is very inflammable. 

Seed Sources in America. — Many of the vegetable seeds of the 
temperate zone are grown under contract on farms in regions where 



16 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS BY MEANS OF SEEDS 



the same crops are grown for market purposes; tomatoes in New- 
Jersey, New York and Michigan. Okra in Georgia, Alabama and 
Mississippi and other southern states. The difficulty of securing 
good seeds for market is greatly increased for biennials, such as 
cabbage, cauliflower, sugar beets, and garden beets. While much 
seed of this class came from France, the world war made it neces- 
sary to change the source of supply. California came to produce 
more beet, onion, cauliflower and cabbage seeds than before. 
Study closely the map, figure 9. 

Trial Grounds for Seeds. — Many large seed companies main- 
tain trial grounds for seeds (Fig. 10) Three main purposes are in 




Fig. 9. — Chief sources of vegetable and flower seeds of the United States. (U. S. D. A.) 



view. (1) To select and breed new varieties. (2) To firmly estab- 
lish and fix the most promising varieties before offering them to 
the public. (3) To test the uniformity and stability of new varie- 
eties that are offered by other growers. 

Buying Seeds. — It usually pays to study garden seed catalogs 
carefully. Much may be learned by such study. Some catalogs 
are too high in their praises of new varieties. In some cases these 
are old varieties under new names. In other cases they prove to 
be very similar to old varieties. " Be not the first by whom the new 



DETECTING AGE OF SEEDS 



17 



is tried." Try to select the variety that will suit your purpose, 
your soil, and your market. If yellow sweet corn is grown for a 
market demanding white corn, a great mistake is made. Some 
markets demand pink-fleshed tomatoes and will hardly take the 
yellower ones. Do not plant ths large potato limas if the small 
prolific varieties are preferred. Early varieties of potatoes should 
seldom be grown for winter use. Others keep better. 

In selecting garden seeds consider: earliness, bearing qualities, 




Fig. 10.- 



-Seed companies test many of their seeds, particularly new varieties, before 
they are offered to the trade. (U. S. D. A.) 



freedom from disease, endurance of heat or cold weather, freedom 
from waste in using the product, popularity, keeping qualities, etc. 

Longevity of Seeds. — Old seeds are always less desirable than 
the fresh stock. Many kinds of seeds deteriorate rapidly with each 
year of age. Those kinds containing considerable oil in the storage 
matter are believed to endure less than others. If they are kept 
in very dry places the germs in seeds will live much longer. 

Detecting Age of Seeds. — Old seeds may often be detected by 
their dull color or faded appearance. To overcome this appearance 



IS 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS BY MEANS OF SEEDS 



old seeds are sometimes polished or bleached or are mixed with 
fresh seeds. 

Testing Seeds. — Probably the best way of detecting the value 
of seeds is to test their power of germination. If ninety or more 
out of a hundred will germinate well they may be used for planting. 
This would indicate maturity, good storage, freshness. 

Simple Testers. — It is usually not necessary to purchase any 
apparatus for seed testing, either at home or at school. A rag-doll 
tester, made of a piece of cloth, is one of the most satisfactory. 
(Fig. 11). 

Mark the cloth with a soft lead pencil into areas about three or 




Fig. 11. — Rag doll method of testing seed corn. Each roll of cloth contains the sample 
kernels from about twenty or thirty ears. The open cloth shows the variations in germi- 
nation. (Photo from Iowa Experiment Station.) 

four inches square. On each square mark a number and place a 
sample of the seeds to be tested. Use 25 each for large seeds, and 
100 each for small seeds. Fold in the sides of the cloth. Then roll 
it up on a small stick the size of a pencil, and tie the roll. SHp out 
the stick to admit plenty of air. Soak it for an hour or two. Then 
allow the surplus water to drain off and keep it covered to hold the 
moisture, for a week or so. Examine by unrolling so carefully as to 
not displace the seeds from their own squares. Count how many 
sprout well and determine the percentage. 

Testing may be done by keeping the seeds moist on blotters 
between plates or pie-pans. They may also be sprouted in boxes 
of moist sand or soil. 



STATE ANALYSIS 



19 



Seed Analysis. — There are three purposes of seed analysis: 
(1) to detect the presence of good seeds of other kinds which may 
be mixed with them; (2) to determine the kinds and percentages 
of weed seeds present; (3) to determine the amount of inert or dead 
matter present, such as chips, pulp, gravel, dirt, etc. 

Detecting Impurities in Seed Samples. — Count ouc, or weigh 
out a fair sample of the seeds after thoroughly mixing the mass of 
seeds together. The sample should be examined by use of a hand 
lens. (Fig. 12.) The seeds may be placed on a piece of white paper 
in a very light place. With a wet pencil point pick up and sort 
them into a number of piles: (1) good seeds; (2) shriveled or small 
seeds; (3) foreign good seeds of several kinds; (4) inert matter; (5) 



1 



Curled Dock 





Alf ilaria 




Saffron 



Curled Lettuce, 



Fig. 12. — Such a lens will aid in detecting weed seeds before planting. Four kinds of 
weeds are shown at the right, mounted in holes of heavy cardboard. 



weed seeds in as many places as there are kinds. Then by count 
or by weight determine the percentage of each of those to the 
whole sample. 

Buying Seeds by Sample. — If possible a sample of seeds should 
be examined and tested before a quantity of them are purchased. 

State Analysis. — Many states now have laws requiring all or 
many common seeds to be sold only after they have been analyzed 
by the dealer or by the state laboratories. A guarantee of quality 
then goes with the seeds. If they fail to reach the standard the 
buyer is protected by the dealer. Where such laws are in opera- 
tion the examination of samples before purchase by the grower is 
not so necessary. 



20 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS BY MEANS OF SEEDS 

HOME PROJECTS AND FIELD AND LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Methods of Pollination should be studied in the apple, peach, plum 
or cherry, and in the bush fruits. Also study the wild rose blossom as to the 
relation of stamens and pistil. Make similar studies with peas, sweet peas, 
beans, cucumber, tomato, okra, and all blossoming plants in the garden. 
What ones seem to have plans to prevent self-pollination? 

2. Pollination by Insects. — Make a list of vegetables, fruits, ornamental 
flowers, and weeds that are visited during the flowering stage by insects. 
Which ones have nectar or are fragrant? Which ones attract insects by their 
color only? Mark those that have sticky, heavy pollen. 

3. Seed formation should be studied when blossoms are dropping their 
petals and losing their bright colors. Examine all common vegetables and 
fruits during this stage, and a httle later as the seeds or fruits are developing. 

4. Food storage in seeds should be demonstrated by cutting open, dissect- 
ing, or sectioning seeds of several different types, such as corn, beans, peas, 
squash, apple, peach, etc. Test for starch by use of iodine applied to the cut 
surface of corn. Test for oil by mashing peanuts, castor beans, and others rich 
in oil. If mashed on white paper they will leave a grease spot. Test for sugar 
by using Fehhng's solution from a drug store. Sections heated in this solution 
over a flame, will turn an orange color, if glucose is present. Taste the prussic 
acid in pits of peach, plum, and almond. 

5. Appearance of starch grains may be studiea with a strong microscope. 

6. Choice of Seeds. — Practice the selection of seeds in the garden. Com- 
pare plants from which seeds are to be saved, with others in the garden. Bear 
in mind earUness, quality, smoothness, or other market characteristics, abun- 
dance, resistance to disease, etc. 

7. Seeds for Market. — A good home project for students is to produce 
seeds for market. Grow them, select, cure, store, label, prepare them for 
market, advertise and sell them. 

8. Contest in Seed Saving. — Students may enter a contest to see which 
ones can save the largest variety of garden seeds (1) from their home gardens, 
(2) from the whole community. Compete for first, second, and third places in 
the contest. Get enough of each kind to plant a small home garden. 

9. Testing samples of seeds for germinating power is a good exercise for 
winter or any other season before planting. Examine the same samples for 
signs of age, insect injury, etc. 

10. Identify impurities found in the samples, and calculate losses if seeds 
were used having these impurities. 

11. State regulations regarding purity of seeds should be obtained from 
the state experiment station or the secretary of agriculture. Compare the 
results in exercise No. 9 with the legal requirements. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Enumerate three reasons for the production of seeds. 

2. What is the relation between flowers and seeds? 

3. Explain what is meant by the terms monoecious, dioecious, and perfect 

flowers. 

4. Mention four plans in nature to prevent self-pollination. 

5. What are the characteristics of flowers that are polUnated by insects? By 

wind? 

6. Mention some plants that bear seeds under ground. What plan in nature 

provides for this? 

7. What classes of food are sometimes stored in seeds? 

8. Of what use is this food to the plant? To animals? 



REFERENCES 21 

9. Give reasons for saving seeds from the home garden. 

10. How may they be labelled? How stored? 

11. Give some valuable precautions in buying seeds. 

12. Describe some good methods of testing seeds. 

13. What are the benefits of seed testing? 

14. What are the duties of a state seed analyst? 

15. Of what value is state analysis to the grower? To honest seed dealers? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletin: 382, Seed Adulteration; 415, Seed 
Corn; 434, Onion Seeds and Sets; 533, Good Seed Potatoes; 646, Crimson 
Clover Seed; 676, Hard Clover Seed;+785, Seed-Flax Production; 948, Rag- 
doll tester. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 382, Seed Adulteration; 434, Onion 
Seeds and Sets; 533, Good Seed Potatoes; 646, Crimson Clover Seed; 676 Hard 
Clover Seed; 785, Seed-Hax Production; 884, Seed Saving; 886, Soybean Seed; 
939, Seed Grain Disinfection; 948, Ragdoll Tester; 996, Seed-bed Sterilization; 
1123, Hardwood Seedlings; 1175, Better Seed Corn; 1232, Seed Marketing 
Hints for the Farmer. 



CHAPTER III 

PRINCIPLES OF PLANT BREEDING AND THEIR APPLI- 
CATION IN GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

By plant breeding is meant the systematic raising or repro- 
duction of plants either with or without an aim toward improve- 
ment. When gardeners or orchardists observe certain individuals 
or types with characteristics which should be perpetuated, they 
may select these individual plants for breeding purposes. The 
points observed will probably be more or less noticeable in the 
offspring. 

Causes of Variation. — It is said that no two plants are exactly 
alike. There is constant variation in nature between individuals 
even of the same kind. These differences may be noticeable or not 
by the grower. This tendency to vary from each other makes it 
possible for the plant breeder to select characteristics which he 
desires. This gives rise to new varieties and new strains. Careful 
observation is required to select the desired types. It is necessary 
to keep these ideals constantly in mind in establishing newvarieties. 

Among the causes which tend to make plants vary may be 
mentioned (1) shade and sunlight, (2) differences in soil and varia- 
tion in plant food, (3) proximity of other plants, that is, whether 
crowded or not, (4) weather and climate. Dandelions growing in 
dense high grass will grow tall; those growing in closely mowed 
quarters blossom near the ground. Many variations occur in 
nature which cannot be explained by any of these causes. 

Survival of the Like and Unlike, — Heredity is one of the most 
important factors for the plant breeder to study. This is the law, 
that all creatures inherit from their ancestors certain forms, char- 
acteristics, and qualities. The law of heredity may be expressed 
briefly by saying that ''like produces like" and "similar produces 
similar." 

Heredity, linked with natural variations are the two funda- 
mental factors which when placed in the hands of the skilful 
breeder will attain wonderful results. Varieties ^^dthout end are 
formed and yet these become so well established that the 
grower can confidently depend upon their reproduction in garden, 
orchard, or farm work. 
22 



POWER TO IMPRESS CHARACTERISTICS 23 

If the survival of the hke were an absolute law there would be 
no possibility of change and all our plants would be alike. The 
environments of the plants set up variations and we may find that 
plants which are unlike are descendants from the same parents. 
These various forms may suit the different environments into which 
they may fall and the result is a survival of the unlike. Take the 
muscadine grape, for example. We find in nature numerous varie- 
ties, all apparently traceable to the same common parentage. By 
the aid of men, the varieties found among all garden and orchard 
plants are greatly improved and their characteristics fixed more 
firmly. 

Extreme or Sudden Variation. — Mutation is a name given to 
any extreme or sudden variation from a type which we have been 
growing. The term "sports" is sometimes applied to these sudden 
variations. It is fairly well established by De Vries and others 
that the characteristics shown by mutations may be inherited by 
their offspring. Thus new extremely different varieties may be 
established somewhat quickly. 

Reversion. — Any tendency of the plants of a new generation 
to assume forms differing from their parents, but resembling gener- 
ations farther back, is called reversion. If variations are estab- 
lished by propagating mutants, or those with sudden variations, it 
is common to notice certain individuals in the line reverting to 
the old type from which the sudden variation sprang. The plant 
breeder may find it necessary to throw out all individuals showing 
this tendency to revert to the old forms. He must keep clearly in 
mind his ideal and select those individuals which show a strong 
tendency in that direction. 

Influence of Soil and Surroundings. — The environment of 
plants has a strong influence upon their manifest characteristics. 
When the plant breeder is making his selection, he must note care- 
fully the surrounding influences. Plants adapt themselves to their 
surroundings. Plants of the same origin grown in different soils 
may show very different results. Fertilizer and tillage should be 
uniform in all plant breeding plots. 

It is believed by many scientists that the differences due to 
surroundings may be inherited by the offspring. The practices of 
some plant breeders are based upon this belief. 

Power to Impress Characteristics. — Prepotency is the term 
given to the power of plants to project or impress their own char- 
acters upon their offspring. Some individuals fail to mark their 



24 PLANT BREEDING 

offspring with their own individuality. Others have this power in 
a marked degree. When two parents are used which differ in cer- 
tain respects, one or the other must dominate in fixing their differ- 
ences upon the offspring. The characters which prevail are called 
dominant characters; those which are overshadowed are called 
recessant characters. 

Breeders will naturally find it advisable to breed from those 
individuals exhibiting strong prepotent qualities. 

Careful Selection. — The plant breeder will find it necessary to 
destroy hundreds and thousands of individuals in the selection of a 
few which meet his ideals. Great skill is required to do this. He 
must observe the many ways in which the individuals vary. He 
must weigh in his mind the practical points and the fanciful points. 
It is necessary for him to choose among these and retain those most 
desired. An effort to hasten the improvement of plants is exer- 
cising the powers given man by the Creator. This is an argument 







Fig. 13. — Two piles at left are the first and second grades of crop from good seed pota- 
toes. Those at the right are from poor seed. 

in favor of artificial selection. (Fig. 13) In nature, selection seems 
to be careless. The power of man's mind adds greatly to the 
improvement of plants and the establishment of varieties which 
yield infinitely better products than those found in nature. The 
importance of seed selection is shown in figure 14. 

The breeder must know the history of the type which he is 
trying to develop. He should keep the practical or economic as- 
pect strongly before him. The laws of variation and heredity must 
be strongly in his mind. 

Hybrids. — New forms are often created by crossing rather 
distinct forms. Pollen taken from one variety of apples and crossed 
on other varieties would produce seeds which are callel hybrids. 
A Japanese plum of one variety may be crossed with a variety of 
European plum or American plum. The resulting offspring would 
be called a hybrid. 

This method of producing new varieties of plants is quite com- 
monly practiced by plant breeders. 



MENDEL'S LAW OF FIXATION OF TYPE 



25 



The process of pollinating the pistil of one plant with pollen 
from another is quite simple. A soft, camel's hair brush is rubbed 
on the stamens to secure the pollen. This may be dusted into a 
small vial and properly labeled. When it is carried to the plant 
bearing the pistils the flowers must be emasculated; that is, the 
stamens should be clipped out with a pair of fine pointed scissors 
before the pollen is shed on the pistil. The new pollen from the 
vial is then dusted on the pistil with the soft brush. Paper bags 




Fig. 14. — Relative sizes of radishes grown from small and large seed. 

tied over the flowers will keep away the foreign pollen which might 
otherwise be brought by bees and wind. 

Home gardeners will find much interest in studying the methods 
here described and they may be tried Avith such instruments as may 
be found in any home. 

Mendel's Law of Fixation of Tjrpe. — When plants of different 
type have been used in plant breeding to form new types or varie- 
ties, the offspring will continue to vary in their characteristics and 
several generations will be required to reasonably fix the new type. 



26 PLANT BREEDING 

Mendel formulated a law governing the rapidity with which plants 
tend to become fixed in their characters after the original crossing. 
If we consider one pair of characteristics, for example, wrinkled- 
ness and smoothness of garden peas, we find that in the first gen- 
eration the seeds are all smooth, but in the next one fourth of the 
individuals will be pure wrinkled peas; one other fourth will be pure 
smooth peas; the other two fourths will bear the dominant charac- 
teristics of smoothness, but these two fourths wUl really be mixed. 

In the next generation of those which are mixed one fourth 
will come as pure wrinkled, one fourth as pure smooth, and two 
fourths as mixed but having the dominant character of smoothness. 
The student will see that it will take many generations to entirely 
eliminate the mixed elements if this law continues to hold good for 
many generations. 

Results of Mendel's Law. — It is readily seen that by the law 
there will always be an element which is mixed and which will 
never come true to the original type nor true to either of the pair 
of characteristics under consideration. If yellow and pink toma- 
toes are crossed, there will always be a number of individuals 
showing one or the other of the parent characteristics. We would 
expect never to be able to establish pure seed after crossing. 

It is because of this law in nature that fruit growers abandon 
the propagation of apples, pears, peaches, plums, and other orchard 
fruits by means of seed. Other methods of propagation are de- 
scribed in the next chapter. When plants are propagated by buds, 
they come more nearly true to the original form and variation is 
eliminated. 

Limits of Mendel's Law. — Plant breeders at the experiment 
stations in the different states and elsewhere have conducted trials 
many of which vindicate the truth of Mendel's law. 

The usefulness of the law, however, is limited because of the 
fact that it recognizes only one pair of characters at a time. In corn 
breeding, for example, one dominant character and the recessive 
character corresponding to it are all that can well be considered 
at a time in the numerical formulas of this law. Yellow corn 
is dominant over white corn. While we are trying to select a 
pure type after crossing corn of two different colors, we are cer- 
tain to lose sight of some of the other characters which are 
perhaps more important. 

Many pairs of Characters to be Considered. — If we continue 
the illustration of breeding, we will see that there are numbers of 



THE PEACH 27 

pairs of characters to be borne in mind by the grower who is trying 
to improve the strain. Some of these pairs may be mentioned here : 
white and pink cobs; long and short ears; large and small cobs; 
deep kernels and shallow kernels; ears high on the stalk or low on 
the stalk; many ears and few ears on the stalk; abundant sucker- 
ing and little suckering; large stems and slender stems separating 
the ears; early maturity and late maturity; ear protruding beyond 
the shucks or well covered with the shucks. 

In the breeding of any plant we will find numerous pairs of 
characters one of which is always dominant over the other. In 
deciding what pairs of characters to use or to keep uppermost in 
plant selection, the breeder should determine which are most prac- 
tical or useful to man. 

Pedigreed Seed. — Gardeners saving seed from their own plants 
know the history of those plants better than when seeds are pur- 
chased elsewhere. If plants of one variety, tomatoes for example, 
are grown in the home garden, the grower knows that there have 
been no tendencies to cross with other varieties. The seed is per- 
haps purer than any he could buy from the neighbors or growers 
where several varieties are produced. The term "pedigreed seed" 
simply means that seed is grown, the producer having knowledge of 
the parents, grandparents, etc. (Fig. 15). 

Need of Attention to Improvements. — It is important that the 
grower as well as the plant breeder should give attention to the im- 
provement of plants. Too often we allow good varieties to deterior- 
ate because of little attention to improvement. Selection should be 
practiced constantly, not merely for a generation or two. The 
gardener can easily watch for mutations and favorable variations 
which if used will greatly improve the strain or help to establish 
better ones. 

Take the strawberry, for example. In any variety we find ber- 
ries which far surpass those about them. They may be earlier, 
larger, sweeter, finer, more prolific, less subject to drouth, etc. 
Plants formed by runners from these may be used to start new 
beds with very satisfactory results. 

The Peach. — Some seedling peaches come rather true to the 
parental characters. Others vary considerably. Probably this 
is because of pollen being introduced from other sources. The 
orchardist will be able to detect the best seedlings and find very 
promising variations. By taking buds from the best individuals, 
a nursery may be started and a new variety is the result. Our 



28 PLANT BREEDING 

purpose should not be to multiply varieties needlessly. It should 
rather be to obtain products that are better than the best. Such 
an aim is a woithy one. 

The Tomato. — Wlien people are canning tomatoes or slicing 
them for the table, they will notice wide variations in the propor- 
tion of flesh to seed pulp. A little observation will show certain 
individuals with tough skin which would allow the fruits to be 
handled without much damage. Some individuals are deeply lobed 
and cause waste of the fruit at paring time; others are bad in color; 




Fig. 15. — Breeding plots of plants must be protected from sparrows if comparisons are to 
be made in yield, etc. (Minnesota Station.) 

still others may rot badly, and some plants may suffer from blight. 
By saving seed from individuals that are most perfect in all these 
characteristics the gardener is establishing a most beneficial prac- 
tice. It may result in improving tomatoes for all the world. 

Improving Seed Potatoes.- — In saving seed from Irish potatoes 
(Fig. 16) and from sweet potatoes, we must remember that we are 
saving the buds or the roots from the parent plant. There is no 
pollinating or crossing involved in either case. If we save seed 
potatoes from the most productiv^e plants, the tendency will be to 



CORN BREEDING 



29 



increase production. If these potatoes are small, the offspring will 
tend to be small, if large the offspring will tend to be large. By 
noting the yield from each hill or plant, we are able to greatly 
improve our seed supply. 

The yield of each plant can be saved separately by placing 
them in separate bags. Give each bag a number. Next season 
plant each of these lots in separate rows with stakes indicating the 
number. Then test the total yield of each row. 

If each hill in this generation is saved for seed in separate bags, 
the best of the best will show greatly improved yields. We will 
find the results multiplied many fold. This is called the hill-row 
method of improving potatoes. 

Com Breeding. — Every corn grower should have some system 
of producing his own seed corn. He may have a seed plot where 




Fig. 16. — Good seed produces more than poor seed. These yields were from the same 
amounts of seed potatoes. 

he does the selecting very carefully. He should have this plot 
located where pollen cannot mix from nearby fields. Many gar- 
deners and farmers select their seed corn from the westerly side of 
the main field because the wind prevails from that direction and 
little if any mixing occurs from the east side of the field. If the 
best corn is planted each year the continued improvement will be 
very noticeable. It is a well established fact that corn is more 
vigorous when not self-pollinated. If pollen is obtained from other 
stalks of the same kind, the seed will be more vigorous. To insure 
cross-pollination, the tassels from every other row may be cut off 
before they scatter any pollen. Then the seed corn may be saved 
from the detasseled stalks. 

It should be remembered that there are in all fields a few stalks 
which are barren or nearly so. These stalks should never be allowed 



30 PLANT BREEDING 

to pollinate the seed ears. In other words both parents of the 
seed corn should be vigorous and productive. The barren stalks 
may be cut out or their tassels cut off before any pollen is scat- 
tered by them. 

To avoid cross pollination with nearby fields, seed corn growers 
plant their fields at long distances from other fields. They some- 
times grow belts of willows or other trees between the different 
varieties. 

The Ear-Row System of Improving Com. — Suppose we select 
the ten best ears of corn from a given garden or field. We may 
plant the seed from each of these ears in a row by itself. Compare 
the yield from each of these rows and select the best ears for seed 
from the best row. If desired, we may continue the ear-row method 
and continue to select from the best, indefinitely. Home gardeners 
will find this method entirely practical and beneficial. 

Size and Weight of Seed. — If several samples of garden seeds 
are sorted by means of sieves into different sizes, it will be found 
that the largest seeds will give best results. With grains which are 
usually weighed instead of measured when purchased, it has been 
found that those which weigh heaviest, for the measured bushel are 
most productive. 

The lesson to be learned here is that we should select the heav- 
iest and best seeds when saving or buying seeds to plant in our 
home gardens. 

Sifting and Weighing. — It pays to sift seeds through sieves 
which will separate the large seeds from the small. Not only will 
the best seeds be thus obtained for planting but many weed seeds 
may be eliminated. When grass and clover seeds are to be sown 
in the home grounds, they should be carefully sifted and weighed 
to determine the proportion of seed and chaff. Light seeds may 
be blown out by means of the fanning mill or other forms of seed 
cleaners. 

HOME PROJECTS, FIELD AND LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Studying Variation. — ^In a thick patch of weeds or other plants, note 
the variation in height, size of stem, number of leaves, color of foliage, and 
other characteristics. Explain as many of these differences as you can. 

2. Extreme Variation. — Find examples of extreme variation in wild or 
tame fruits, or other plants. Of what advantage could these be in developing 
new varieties or strains? 

3. Selection by Growers. — Visit truck gardeners, fruit growers, or pro- 
fessional plant breeders. Ask them to show results of careful selection in de- 
veloping new strains. 



IMPROVING SEED POTATOES 



31 




Fio. 17.- 



-Tools used in removing stamens before they shed pollen. The operation is called 
emasculation. 



4. Artificial Pollination. — ^With fine pointed scissors (Fig. 17) and fine 
soft brush practice artificial pollination of any flowers that may be available. 
Begin with large flowers first if possible. Also pollinate monoecious and dioe- 
cious blossoms that do not need emasculating. Tie paper bags over the cross- 
pollinated flowers (Fig. 18) and note results to see if pollinating was successful. 

5. Hybridizing. — -A good home project may be conducted in hybridizing 
of plants. For example, collect pollen from five varieties of tomatoes, using 
a soft brush and small glass vial for 
each variety. Then pollinate twenty- 
five emasculated blossoms with each 
of these five kinds of pollen, making 
125 blossoms in all. Bag and label each 
of these. The label should show the 
name or number of each parent. Study 
the results when the fruits ripen. Save 
the seeds of each specimen, and num- 
ber them to agree with records kept of 
the crosses. Compare the specimens in 
all characteristics, such as earhness, 
smoothness, firmness of flesh, size, pro- 
portion of flesh to pulp. Plant the seeds 
of each and continue the project for 
one or more seasons, selecting the most 
promising strains developed. 

6. Improving Seed Potatoes. — 
Grow potatoes by the hill-row system. 
Stake and label each row or section. 

Compare the yields of potatoes planted ^orherp'ollen^om enrering"'^ru„,berron'the 
from each hill. Again select the best label indicate the parentage. 




Fig. 18. — After hand pollination the flow- 
ers are "bagged" with paper to prevent 



32 PLANT BREEDING 

hills from the most productive row, and continue the project for one or more 
seasons. 

7. Com Improvement. — Select the best ears of corn in the field or garden. 
Plant the seed from each ear in a row by itself. Again select the best ears from 
the most productive row. Continue the project as long as desired. This is 
called the ear-row system of corn improvement. 

8. Improving Peaches. — In the peach orchard select a tree that produces 
better fruit than any others of its variety. Use buds from this tree in propa- 
gating new peach trees, as described in Chapter VI. Some of the buds may be 
used on trees of bearing age. They may yield fruit sooner than those budding 
on young stocks. Compare the fruits thus produced with others. If the im- 
{irovement is pronounced, and is thus shown to be well fixed, the strain may be 
given a new name. 

9. Weight of Seeds. — Visit an implement house or seed store where a fan- 
ning mill may be studied. If possible obtain permission to run a peck or a 
bushel of seeds through the machine. Weigh the sample before and after. 
Note the difference in weights of a quart of uncleaned and cleaned seeds. 
Study the cleanings. This exercise may be continued as a project by growing 
a sample of the cleaned and uncleaned seeds and comparing the yields. Calcu- 
late the advantage to the whole state if seed cleaning were practiced by all. 

10. Discussions and Debates.— a. Each student should discuss at home 
what varieties of garden and field crops could be improved by home selection. 

b. Discuss the probable need of a hive of bees in pollinating orchard 
fruits and small fruits. 

c. Will it be advisable to have a distinct seed-corn plot on the home farm 
this year? 

d. Shall we try to improve our potato yield by hill selection of seed? 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the most important causes of variation among plants? 

2. What is meant by heredity? State the law briefly. 

3. What is meant by the term "sports" in plant breeding? 

4. W^hat is De Vries' teaching regarding their use? 

5. What are the effects of reversion in plant breeding? 

6. Explain the meaning of prepotency. 

7. How would you explain the importance of careful selection? 

8. What are hybrids? 

9. What is Mendel's law of fixation of type? 

10. In what way is this law limited in use? 

11. Give an example of the resuts of Mendel's law. 

12. Give some advantages of using pedigreed seed. 

13. Give an example of the value of attention to improvement. 

14. How could the peach be improved by a plant breeder? 

15. State the same for the tomato. 

16. Describe the hill-row system of improving Irish potatoes. 

17. Outline a plan for improvement of corn. 

18. Explain the use of a fanning mill in improving yields of crops. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletin, 884, Saving Vegetable Seeds; Cor- 
nell Reading Courses No. 38, Principles and Methods of Plant Breeding; Im- 
provement of Cotton Seed by Selection, Year Book, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 
1902, pp. 363-386. 



CHAPTER IV 

PROPAGATION BY UNDERGROUND PARTS 

By plant propagation we mean the multiplication of plants by 
any means, with the intention of securing a number of individuals 
of the same kind as the parent stock. 

BY DIVISION OF ROOTS 

A great many perennial herbs and woody shrubs have buds 
near the crown, just beneath the surface of the ground. In nearly 
all such cases the plant may be dug up and the parts separated by 
splitting, cutting, or otherwise dividing the underground parts. 

Important Conditions. — Roots bearing some of the buds near 
the upper part will be likely to grow when properly planted in a 
new place. The important point is to have some healthy buds 
with plenty of root surface. (Fig. 19.) 

Herbs Propagated by Root Division. — Among the numerous 
herbaceous perennials which are readily propagated by this method 
are asparagus, rhubarb, some columbines, golden glow, lily-of-the- 
valley, peony (Fig 20), hardy chrysanthemum, Pulsatilla (Fig. 21), 
marsh marigold, bleeding heart, larkspur, gold seal (Fig. 22) and 
others. Many of these have true stems under ground. 

Shrubs Propagated by Root Division. — Those shrubs which 
have root-stocks or stolons, running out a short distance, can 
easily be propagated by division. Many hardy garden roses are 
of this type. The Japanese rose (Rosa rugosa) is an excellent 
example. Other common shrubs are barberry, spirea, some spe- 
cies of dogwood, common lilac, red raspberry, sweet syringa, and 
many others familiar to all. 

Suckers are underground stems with shoots sent up at a 
short distance from the parent plant. These may be taken up with 
enough root for their support and may then be set out as new 
plants. Some types of cherries may be propagated by this method. 
The multiplication of red raspberries, already mentioned, is really 
of this type. The silver-leaved poplar is one of the worst trees 
about sending up too many suckers; their real roots send up shoots. 
3 33 



34 



PROPAGATION BY UNDERGROUND PARTS 



Dividing and Transplanting. — Probably the best time to divide 
plants, either herbs or shrubs, is in the late autumn, after the leaves 
have fallen. The whole plant may be taken up with plenty of its 
roots. The dividing may be done by means of a sharp spade, and 
by spreading the main parts until they separate. It is usually not 
necessary to treat the wounds in any way except to cover them 
with soil. 

The divided plants should be set in their new places as soon 
as convenient. 



Fig. 19. 



Fig. 20. 




Fig. 19. — The Christmas rose (Helleborus) is propagated by dividing the crown and roots. 

Fig. 20. — The common peony is propagated by dividing the fleshy roots. Some of these 
may grow without the crown buds but do better with them. 



PROPAGATION OF BULBOUS PLANTS 

Propagation of plants by means of bulbs is sometimes called 
separation because the bulbs are vegetative organs that are nat- 
urally detachable. 

Using Bulbs of Different Types.— The solid bulb, as found in 
cyclamen of the greenhouse, and in the Indian turnip of the woods, 



USING BULBS OF DIFFERENT TYPES 



35 



is sometimes called a corm. Gladiolus, crocus, and bulbous butter- 
cup (Fig. 23.) are other familiar examples. These solid bulbs re- 
produce themselves by forming new ones on top or on the sides of 
the old one which dies away after its store of nourishment is used. 

The true bulb is typified in many of the lilies. It is more like 
a very large bud with very thick, fleshy scales. The store of 
nourishment is chiefly in the scales themselves. 

The coated bulb is seen in the conmion onion and hyacinth. 
The coats are in the form of rather complete rings. Hyacinth 




Fig. 21. — The beautiful Pulsatilla is divided easily. 

part. 



Keep a bud and some root with each 



bulbs, if cut in sections or crosswise, will form small bulbs along 
the cut surfaces. These may be separated and grown to full size. 
(Fig. 24.) 

In the commercial propagation of hyacinth bulbs the strongest 
bulbs are selected. The bulbs are cut across or are hollowed out, 
or are cut deeply as if to make sections. They are then dried and 
stored through the summer and then put into sandy loam. One 



36 



PROPAGATION BY UNDERGROUND PARTS 



season is sufficient for the formation of numerous bulblets which 
start at the cut places. These are separated and planted in spe- 
cially prepared beds. They are here given good care and allowed 
to grow to full flowering strength, which may require from three to 
six years. 

The bulbs grown by this method are propagated in large quan- 
tities in Holland, where the weather is moist, the soil favorable, 
and the winters not severe. Similar favorable conditions are found 



Fig. 22. 



Fig 23. 




Fig. 22. — Gold seal (Hydrastis) is multiplied by tearing the roots apart and keeping crown 
buds on each part. 

Fig. 23. — The old bulb of the bulbous buttercup will die and leave the young plants 
separated. This method of propagation my be hastened by separating the young bulbs 
from the old. 



on the Pacific coast of Washington ; and in recent years the bulb- 
growing industry has greatly increased in the region of Bellingham 
and elsewhere. 

Bulblets are small bulbs formed above ground. On plants of 
the onion family they are near the top of the stems like a flower 
cluster. On tiger lilies they are in the angles of the leaves along 
the stems. If separated from the parent plant and placed in the 
soil, they produce new plants. 



PROPAGATION BY TRUE ROOTS 



37 



Tubers are used for propagation of all plants which yield them. 
The most common examples of tuber-formmg plants are the Irish 
potato and the Jerusalem artichoke. 

A tuber is a fleshy portion of the underground stem, bearing 
*'ej'es" or true buds arranged in somewhat regular spirals. 

The Potato. — An examination of several Irish potatoes will 
reveal the fact that the two ends are not alike. The stem end is 
where it was attached to the parent plant. The opposite end is 
called the "eye' ' end because the eyes or true buds are more abun- 
dant at that end. These eyes 
usually start growth first. If 
the first growth is killed by 
frost the others may grow 
later. If long pieces are cut for 
planting they may bear both 
types of eyes. The stem end of 
large potatoes might ahiiost 
as well be saved for table use 
because of so much food and 
so few eyes. Do not plant 
very small pieces with 
only one or two eyes unless 
potatoes are very expensive. 

Seed potatoes should be spread on a floor in a rather light place, 
but not in direct sunlight. If they remain here for several days 
they will become greenish in color and the sprouts will be strong 
and the subsequent growth will be more vigorous. (Fig. 83.) 

Propagation by True Roots. — Very few plants can be propa- 
gated by true roots alone. Plants of the blackberry group are very 
notable examples. Methods used in propagating blackberries are 
described under cuttings, in the next chapter. 

The peony and some other fleshy-rooted herbaceous plants, 
including the sweet potato, will grow somewhat readily from the 
fleshy roots. 

The apple, pear, quince, and some plums are quite commonly 
propagated by means of root grafts. But in this type of propaga- 
tion the new twig with its buds is grafted on the root or piece of 
root. A rather complete union is formed before the new plant 
begins growth. Root grafting is fully described in Chapter VI. 




Fig. 24. — Section of hyacinth bulb showing 
bulblets forming at each scale. These are later 
set out and developed to full size. 



38 PROPAGATION BY UNDERGROUND PARTS 

HOME PROJECTS AND GARDEN EXERCISES 

1. Root Division. — Dig, divide, and transplant a number of herbaceous 
plants, such as are mentioned on the first page of this chapter. 

2. Propagate a few shrubs by root division. In each case study the re- 
sults to determine the importance of having healthy buds and good roots on 
each division. With what shrubs propagated is tliis most important? Which 
least? 

3. Suckers. — Propagate cherries, plums, or other trees by means of 
suckers. 

4. Multiplying Bulbs. — In autumn dig such bulbs as cannas, caladiums, 
dahlias, or others that are available. Study their multiplication. Record the 
numbers of new bulbs in several cases. 

5. Kinds of Bulbs.— Make a collection of the different types of bulbs 
described in this chapter. Label each. 

6. Quantity of Potato Seed. — Conduct a project using different rates of 
planting Irish potatoes. (1) Use whole potatoes. (2) Use half potatoes. (3) 
Two eyes on each piece. (4) One eye on each piece. (5) Use thick potato 
peelings. (6) Have some cut lengthwise of the potatoes. Use equal areas for 
these lots. Compare yields. Calculate profits, considering cost of seed, for 
each. Reduce results to the acre basis. 

7. Propagation Contest. — Students should have a contest in plant prop- 
agation by methods described in this chapter. The plants should be replanted 
on the home grounds or school grounds, or supplied to others. Make a suit- 
able set of scores or points, for the common plants of the region; for example 
let each lilac count 1, each cHmbing rose 1, each bulb 2, each pansy root 2, 
lily of the valley 2, golden glow 2, purple iris 1, other iris 2, peony 3, bush 
rose 3, etc. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What plants are readily propagated by root cuttings? 

2. Mention vegetables and flowers that may be propagated by "root divi- 

sion." 

3. What shrubs may be propagated by this method? 

4. What are suckers, and how used? 

5. Describe propagation of hyacinths or other bulbs. 

6. Define "eye end" and "stem end" with reference to Irish potatoes. 

7. Describe a good method of cutting Irish potatoes for planting. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 157, The Propagation of Plants; 
533, Good Seed Potatoes; 847, Potato Storage. 



CHAPTER V 
CUTTINGS AND LAYERINGS 

Two of the most common methods of bud propagation are by 
cuttings and by layering. 

Stems and Roots Compared. — There are several differences 
between true stems and roots. The student must not confuse 
underground stems with true roots. We seldom find roots grow- 
ing above ground, particularly in woody plants, but we do fre- 
quently find stems underground. Among the differences between 
stems and roots may be mentioned (1) regularly placed buds 
on stems and none on roots, (2) scales or leaves are found near 
the buds on stems. These are entirely absent from roots. (3) 
Ability of stems to send up shoots at the nodes. Roots seldom 
have the ability to send up shoots. There are some exceptions to 
this as we will notice later. 

CUTTINGS 

Types of Cuttings. — There are three main types of cuttings: 
(1) root cuttings or pieces of root are used; (2) hard wood cuttings, 
sometimes called ripe wood cuttings ; (3) green wood, or soft wood 
cuttings. Each of these types has its particular use, and plants 
which are propagated by one of the methods are seldom propagated 
by another form of cutting. 

Root Cuttings. — When plants are propagated by cuttings made 
of the true roots the roots are cut from the mature plants and are 
madeof suitable length, say three to six inches. These are dropped 
in furrows and covered. They may or may not be stored over 
winter according to the circumstances or needs of the grower. One 
of the most common plants using this method of propagation is the 
common blackberry. The dewberry which is a close relative may 
also be propagated by root cuttings. 

It may be said that sweet potatoes are propagated by root cut- 
tings as they will grow readily from pieces of sweet potato, which 
are really true roots. There are no regular buds on the sweet potato 
or on the blackberry roots; the shoots are formed at any suitable 
place. There is no regularity about the arrangement of the shoots 
arising from these roots. 

39 



40 CUTTINGS AND LAYERINGS 

Hard Wood, or Ripe Wood Cuttings. — There are several types 
of woody cuttings: (1) simple cuttings containing two or more 
buds, (2) mallet cuttings where a piece of the main stem remains 
attached to the branch containing the buds, (3) heel cuttings 
where a portion is cut from the side of the main stem where the 

\ branch used for the cutting orig- 
inated, (4) single eye cuttings 
containing a short piece of stem 
bearing one bud only. These 
types are shown in figure 25. 
Making Hard Wood Cut- 
tings. — Probably the best time 
for making hard wood cuttings 
is after the leaves have fallen 
from the twigs in late fall or 
early winter. A sharp pair of 
l^k ^^ pruning shears or a sharp knife 
^^^ % may be used. Large numbers of 
J, ^^^ ^^L^ cuttings can be made without 
^^ ^^^^^^^ injury to the parent plants and 
^^ ^^^H^B^ little time is consumed in the 
^^^ ^^^^^ process. 
L How Stored.— If the cut- 
^^^ tings are made in the fall or 
^B^ early winter they should be 
^^ stored. A suitable storage place 
^^^^^^ is the common cellar or vege- 
^^^^^^^^ table pit. The cuttings are tied 
^^^^l^ in bundles and properly labelled. 
^'Sr„^^r~M°'"'"^ii"l ^h'!"^?"^ cuttings. 8, A wooden label and soft pencil 

simple; M, mallet; H, heel; E, single eye. . * 

should be used. Indicate the 
number, kind and date. Immerse these bundles in wet sand or 
wet sawdust in boxes which are well drained and keep them thor- 
oughly wet until planting time the next spring. 

Callousing. — During the storage period the cut surfaces become 
calloused or healed over, and it is believed that the roots start best 
from near the calloused surfaces. Many hard wood cuttings will 
not grow unless they have passed through the callousing period. 
There are a number of exceptions to this, however. 

Planting Hard Wood Cuttings. — No definite rule can be given 
regarding the best time for planting the cuttings in the open gai'den 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT 



41 



or nursery row. Better to err on the side of being rather late than 
too early with this work. Have the soil well prepared by deep 
plowing and thorough pulverizing, A rich black loam is to be pre- 
ferred as it will hold moisture well. A trench or furrow may be 
made with a turning plow or single shovel plow. Place the cuttings 
along the straight side of the furrow. (Fig. 26). If simple, heel, 
or mallet cuttings are used one or two buds may be left protruding 
from the ground. An inch or two of the stem is enough, and the 
remainder should be in the ground even if the cuttings are eight or 
ten inches in length. Throw the soil back against the cuttings and 
firm it in place with the foot. This will bring the moisture to the 




Fig. 26. — Cuttings of grape, currant and other woody plants should be planted so deep that 
only one or two buds are seen above ground when the trench is filled. 

young plant and cause it to start growth. The distance between 
the plants should be arranged to suit the kind. Usually we would 
allow room for a hoe between plants in the row and the rows 
should be far enough apart to allow the use of a horse cultivator, 
say three or three and one-half feet. 

Care and Management. — The young plants started from hard 
wood cuttings should be given thorough tillage throughout the 
growing season. Much care must be exercised by the man with a 
horse going between the rows. The careless driver will do much 
damage by breaking the cuttings or injuring the bark with a 
cultivator. 



42 



CUTTINGS AND LAYERINGS 



Trees and Shrubs Grown from Hard Wood Cuttings. — Among 
our common fruits which may be grown from cuttings may be 

mentioned currants, gooseber- 
ries and grapes. If slender 
twigs are taken from goose- 
berries this process of propa- 
gation is not. very successful. 
Fleshy twigs from certain 
types or varieties will succeed 
if conditions are favorable. 

Willows and all kinds of 
poplars are more commonly 
propagated by this method 
than by any other. 

A number of our orna- 
mental shrubs can easily be 
propagated by hard wood cut- 
tmgs taken either in late fall 
or very early spring if time is 
allowed for some callousing. 
Among these may be men- 
tioned golden bell (Forsythia) 
(Fig. 27) Japanese rose (Rosa 
rugosa) barberry, privet, sy- 
rmga, some dogwoods, and 
many others. 

Soft or Green Wood Cut- 
tings. — There are at least two 
types of soft or green wood 
cuttings: (1) those in which 
the leaf is the chief part of the 
cutting, as in the case of fleshy 
begonia leaves, and (2) those 
which use a part of the green 
stem and one or more small 
leaves attached to this. The 
geranium is a good example of 
the second type. 

Green wood cuttings may 

Fig. 27.— Practice in making cuttings of ripe bc Started at any time if the 
wood about the time the leaves are ready to , , -j^i • i 

fall. They are stored for planting in the spring. plaUtS are grOWU Wlthm dOOrS. 





USES AND EXAMPLES 



43 



We seldom attempt to start cuttings from green wood out of 
doors. These are first rooted in boxes of sand or very light soil in 
some protected spot where close attention may be given to them. 
Principles Involved. — There are several important principles 
to be kept in mind in rooting green wood cuttings. 

1. There is much exposed evaporating surface which must be 
reduced by use of the knife or scissors. 

2. The supply of moisture must be ample so that the cutting 
can obtain as much moisture as its leaf surface is giving off during 
the critical period before it develops roots. 

3. Clean, sharp sand is best for the starting of young roots, as 
there is less tendency to decay of the epidermis or covering of the 
stem thrust into it. 

4. Plenty of warmth must be provided without allowing too 
rapid evaporation. For this reason the box of cuttings may be 
kept in a sunny exposure but covered with newspaper or glass to 
retard evaporation. Extra heat supplied from below is helpful, and 
can be provided if the cuttings 
are being started in green- 
houses or homes. 

5. The cutting has no 
means of taking up nourish- 
ment during the rooting 
period; it must therefore be 
supplied with plenty of nour- 
ishment within itself. Some- 
what fleshy parts, preferably 
including a bud are desired for 
the best results. 

Uses and Examples. — 
Green wood cuttings are ex- 
tremely useful in the propaga- 
tion of many of our potted 
plants. (Fig. 28.) Geraniums 
and begonias have already 
been mentioned. Chrysanthemums and carnations are commonly 
propagated in the esiriy spring for the fall and winter crops of 
blossoms. Many of our foliage plants grown in borders and orna- 
mental beds are propagated in-doors during late winter and early 
spring months. Many roses are propagated almost entirely by cut- 
tingsof the immature wood. Numerousother examples arecommon. 



^^^^j' ** l^^^^^H 


^KiM^I^H^r^^^ ^ ** J 


^^^^s^ 


Ml 


wM 


^/m 



Fig. 28. 



-Making beds of cuttings of roses 
and other indoor plants. 



44 CUTTINGS AND LAYERINGS 

Management after Rooting. — For best results the cuttings are 
watched closely during the rooting period, and as soon as they 
establish plenty of root surface they are lifted out with a small 
portion of the sand or soil adhering to them. They are then potted 
or transplanted to beds or boxes. Good garden soil containing 
plenty of black loam is best for them at this time. They are then 
kept well watered and given other good conditions to force the 
growth somewhat rapidly. 

PROPAGATION BY LAYERING 

When plants are propagated by layering they are certain to 
produce the same kind as the parent plant, as they are really a 
part of it. They are also much more certain to grow than in the 
case of cuttings because they remain attached to the parent plant 
and may obtain circulation and nourishment from it until new 
roots are formed at the point of layering. 

There are several kinds of layering: (1) vine layering, (2) 
mound layering, (3) tip layering, (4) pot layering. 

Vine Layering. — A great many vines may be propagated by 
layering. Among these are the different varieties of grapes, cle- 
matis, and Virginia creeper. There are two types of vine layering, 
one called the serpentine form, in which the vine touches the ground 
at several points, but is bent into the air between these points. 
The second type is simple vine layering. (Fig. 29). The vine is 
somewhat covered with earth throughout its whole length and may 
send up buds at the nodes and send down roots at any point along 
the stem. In the serpentine layering roots are formed at the points 
where the vine is covered with soil, and the stem in the air serves 
as a shoot without the formation of a new shoot. In either of the 
types the parent vine is cut in parts between the points of rooting, 
and each part will form a separate plant. 

Rooting and Transplanting. — The vines used for layering 
should be vigorous and well supplied with nourishment. They are 
best started during the height of the growing season, which is after 
the spring growth is well started. At least there must be enough 
time left during the summer for the plants to root well before 
autumn. The new plants may be taken up either during that 
autumn or early the following spring. They are transplanted to 
their new locations and given the same care that is required for 
good gro^vth of shrubs and trees. 



OTHER PLANTS GROWN BY TIP LAYERING 



45 



Tip Layering. — When the tips of certain woody plants are bent 
over and covered with soil they may form roots and new shoots. 
Then when the parent branch is cut off a new plant is left growing 
at the pomt where the rooting took place. Black raspberries are 
most commonly propagated by this method. (Fig. 30.) 

Plan with Raspberries. — After the crop of berries has been 
picked is the best time to begin the propagation by tip layering. 
Cultivate the soil between the rows thoroughly so that it is mellow 
and moist and free from weeds. In a rather straight row by the 
side of the parent plants bend down the longest canes, slightly 
break them on the under side a few inches from the tip and cover 
them with some soil at the wounded points. Scores or hundreds 
of tips may be thus treated in a short time. If necessary clods of 



Fig. 29. 



Fig. 30. 




Fig. 29. — Vine layering; an easy method of propagating certain varieties of grapes or other 
vines which do not grow well from cuttings. 

Fig. 30. — Tip layering of canes of the blackcap raspberry. 



earth may be placed on them to hold them down. In light sandy 
loam it is sometimes necessary to hold them with pegs thrust 
deep into the soil. In a few weeks these may be examined and 
found to be provided with roots. The tips of the twigs which were 
not covered will form fresh leaves or new shoots. When new 
growth is thus established, cut off the parent canes connected with 
the old plants. This may be done with a spade or pruning shears. 
The new row of young plants may be left in place until late autumn 
or early spring. They are then taken up and planted in the new 
berry patch where they are to remain. 

Other Plants Grown by Tip Layering. — There are a number of 
plants which naturally propagate themselves by tip layering. 
Indeed, many of our ornamental shrubs may be induced to form 



46 



CUTTINGS AND LAYERINGS 



new plants by this method. The golden bell, or Forsythia, very 
naturally multiplies by this method. Plants which are not com- 
monly propagated by layering may be induced to do so if the twig 
is wounded at the point where it is covered with soil, and if the 
weather conditions are favorable. Willows, poplars, dogwoods 
and others will easily form new plants in this way. 

The Strawberry has a special plan of propagation. Its run- 
ners take root at the nodes. (Fig. 31.) 

Mound Layering. — This method obtains its name from the 
fact that the soil is mounded up among the lower stems or branches. 
The method is resorted to because of the fact that root division is 



Fig. 31. 



Fig. 32. 




Fio. 31. — Strawberries and many other plants naturally multiply by means of runners which 
take root at the tip or at nodes. 

Fig. 32. — A mound of soil among the stems of the gooseberry will cause roots to form in this 
soil. Plants may then be multiplied by division. 

too slow, or may not be possible because of there being only one 
stem arising from the ground. 

When the soil is mounded up among the lower branches for a 
season, roots will be sent from the lower branches into this soil. 
(Fig. 32.) At the end of the growing season the whole plant may 
be taken up and divided by cutting these newly rooted branches 
away from the others. These may be planted as separate 
individuals. 

Common Examples of Mound Layering. — The lilac, gooseberry, 
quince, althea and others may be easily propagated by this method. 
Indeed, the method is a very sure one, as it does not in any way 
endanger the life of the parent. 



QUESTIONS 47 

Analogous to Root Division. — There is but little difference 
between mound layering and root division, except that in mound 
layering the gardener finds it necessary to mound up the soil among 
the lower branches to induce more roots to be formed on the stems 
already bearing buds or branches. Propagation by root division 
was explained in Chapter IV. 

Pot Layering. — In some indoor plants, such as the India rub- 
ber plant of greenhouses, propagation is effected by means of pot 
layermg. 

A flower pot is split open and the two halves are tied around an 
upright branch and the pot is filled with sand or soil, or wet moss. 
If the branch be wounded at the place, a cluster of roots will be 
formed in the pot. After this the branch may be cut off below the 
pot and we have a separate plant already rooted. The young plant 
is then repotted in good soil in a larger pot for further growth. 



HOME PROJECTS AND NURSERY EXERCISES 

1. Root Cuttings. — Propagate blackberries, dewberries, or Loganberries, 
by root cuttings. 

2. Types of Cuttings. — Make cuttings from grape, or other available 
plants, showing each of the four forms. 

3. Grapes from Cuttings. — In early winter make many cuttings of grapes. 
Tie the cuttings in bundles of twenty-five each, and label properly. Store 
these as directed. Plant when danger of frost is over. Give them proper care 
for one year and sell plants or transplant to a vineyard. Contmue this project 
as long as desired. 

4. Trees and Shrubs from Cuttings. — During the dormant season make 
cuttings of currants, gooseberries, privet, golden bell, Japanese barberry, 
Japanese rose, spirea, syringa, or any shrubs that may be available. Try some 
that you are doubtful about propagating by this method. This exercise'may 
be continued as a project by storing, planting, and caring for the cuttings for 
a season or more. 

5. Green Wood Cuttings. — Propagate geranium, fuchsia, begonia, rose, or 
other house plants, using methods suggested for green wood cuttings. After 
rooting, these may be cared for and the plants sold when brought to flowering 
age. This is a project suited to indoor work. 

6. 7, 8. Layering.^Conduct projects similar to the above with vine lay- 
ering, tip layering, and mound layering, using such plants as are suggested in 
this chapter. 

9. Contest in Propagation. — Let contests be held for one season in success- 
ful propagation of plants by hardwood cuttings and by layering. It is partic- 
ularly important to give most value in such contests to the propagation of 
small fruits and ornamental plants. 

10. Investigation. — Let each student determine approximately how many 
simple cuttings could be made while pruning the grapes at his home and 
neighboring places. Report the number and varieties at school. Let someone 
write to a nursery and ascertain the usual prices per thousand allowed for such 
cuttings. Calculate the money value of these to the community if they were 



48 CUTTINGS AND LAYERINGS 

saved and grown. Substitute strawberries or other small fruits if desired. 

11. Nursery Studies. — If a nursery is in the region it should be visited 
by horticulture students. Make an outhne of all points observed, the questions 
to be asked of the manager; the kinds of notes to be taken; the calculations 
to be made; and data desired. 

12. Nursery Catalog Studies. — Make a collection of nursery catalogs. In 
these compare prices of grapes with prices of strawberry plants, raspberries, etc. 
How can you account for the differences in these prices? 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the differences between true stems and roots? 

2. Describe root cuttings. Give directions for making and using them. 

3. What are the four forms of hardwood cuttings? 

4. Give directions for making, storing, and planting hardwood cuttings. 

5. Make a list of trees and shrubs grown from hard wood cuttings. 

6. What are the principles involved in the successful growth of green wood 

cuttings? 

7. How are green wood cuttings managed after rooting? 

8. Describe vine laying. 

9. Describe the method of tip layering as applied to blackberries. 

10. Why is mound layering resorted to? 

11. Describe the steps in mound layering; 

12. Describe pot layering. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 157, Propagation of plants; 471 
Grape Propagation; 643, Blackberry Culture; 700, Pecan Culture; 887, Rasp- 
berries; 979, Straw^berry Propagation; 1016, Date Palm Propagation. 



CHAPTER VI 
BUDDING AND GRAFTING 

Budding is really a form of grafting in which a single bud is 
used. On the other hand we may say that grafting is a form of 
budding in which a twig bearing several buds is used. In each case 
the bud or twig is inserted upon another stem or root where it will 
grow and form a complete union. In grafting, the twig is called a 
scion and the stem or root to which it is attached is called a stock. 
The stems on which buds are placed in the budding operation are 
also called stocks. 

Reproduction by Budding or Grafting. — There are several 
principles to be kept in mind when plants are to be propagated by 
budding or by grafting. 

1. Good varieties of peaches, plums, cherries, apples, pears, etc., 
may be propagated by using buds from them to grow on suitable 
stocks. 

2. The buds will grow if properly inserted on stocks closely 
related to the kind from which the buds were taken. Peaches and 
plums may be grown on peach or plum stocks. Apples and pears 
may be grown on apple or quince stocks. 

3. The stock does not influence the character of fruit borne by 
the tree resulting from this budding or grafting. The fruit is like 
the kind from which the bud was taken. 

4. The stock may influence the character of growth and size 
of the tree resulting from the union. Thus quince stocks will cause 
pears and apples to be dwarfed in size, or the Paradise apple, when 
used as stocks, will dwarf the trees. The stocks may also influence 
the power of resistance to disease. 

Shield-Budding. — There are many methods of budding but the 
one which is rather more common than all the rest is shield-budding. 
It is named from the shape of the piece carrying the bud as it is cut 
from the plant to be propagated. A T-shaped cut is made in the 
stock and the two corners of bark are raised and rolled back slightly 
The shield bearing the bud is inserted just under the flap of bark so 
that the growing layer, called the cambium layer, just under the 
bark will rest against the wood of the stock. (Fig. 33.) The bark 
is then placed snugly against the shield to hold it in place. This 
4 49 



50 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING 



leaves a slight opening for the new bud which will begin growth at 
the proper time. The bark and shield are held in place by wrap- 
ping with waxed cotton or raffia. 

Propagation of Peaches. — Improved varieties of peaches are 
propagated chiefly by budding. The actual budding is done either 
in June or September. In the extreme southern states, June bud- 
ding is quite commonly practiced. The buds used for the June 
buddings of peaches are saved from the dormant season in cold 







• ^\ 



J 



t 



Fig. 33. — Three steps in shield budding. At the right is a scion or budding stick from which 
the buds are cut as shown by the dotted line. 



storage or in cellars. They are inserted on young growing seed- 
lings started from seed early that spring. 

For September budding of peaches the buds used are from the 
current year's growth on good varieties. They are inserted on seed- 
lings started from seed in the spring of that year. In this case, they 
do not start growth in the same fall that the budding is done. They 
became calloused in place and remain dormant until the following 
spring. At that time, the top of the seedling is cut off above the 



SECURING MATERIALS FOR BUDDING 51 

new bud and the whole strength of the sap from the root is thrown 
into the development of the new shoot from the new bud. All 
other shoots are pruned off with the fingers and none but that 
growmg from the improved bud is retained. 

After the budded seedling has grown one season, it is ready to 
be transplanted to the orchard. In the case of June budded 
peaches, the new buds begin growth almost immediately after they 
are inserted. The seedling shoots are then removed and all the 
growth is thrown into the new shoot. The budded peach tree is 
left in the nursery row until fall or the followmg spring when it is 
ready for transplanting to the orchard. 

Propagation of Plums. — Plums are grafted or budded in much 
the same ways as described for propagation of apples and peaches. 
The stocks are of several lands for the different types of plums. 
For the European (Domestica) and Japanese plums probably the 
most popular are the Marianna plum grown from seeds and the 
Myrabalan plum grown from cuttings. American wild plum seed- 
lings are much used as stocks for the budcUng and grafting of im- 
proved varieties of American plums, particularly in the middle and 
western states. Peach stocks are well suited for use in growing 
plums for light soils and for southern localities. 

Propagation of Cherries. — Grafting and budding are both prac- 
ticed in the propagation of cherries. Budding is more common. 
This maybe done on stocks suited to the different types of cherries. 
The time of budding may be in June or in August and September 
as in the case ot peaches. Preference is usually given to September 
budding. (Figs. 34 and 35.) 

Securing Materials for Budding. — Seeds for growing stocks 
are usually taken from the seedling trees. They are what nursery- 
men designate as ''native" seeds. As the stocks do not materially 
influence the fruit of the orchard, it is not absolutely essential that 
native seeds should be used but seeds from improved varieties are 
considered less suitable for the growing of stocks as the growth may 
be poor and seeds may fail to germinate. 

Scions from which the buds are to be taken are cut at the proper 
season from trees of bearing age. If the limbs are taken from peach 
trees, for example, for August budding, they would be taken only 
a few days before the budding is to be done. The leaves are cut 
with knife or scissors leaving the leaf stem attached beneath each 
bud. This protects the leaf scar and gives the operator a handle 
for use in placing the bud. These fresh scions should be kept wrap- 



52 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING 



ped in wet paper or wet sawdust until used. They may be sent by 
express or by parcel post long distances if desired. 

Seeds for apple stocks are usually taken from cider presses dis- 
regarding variety or source of the seeds. The pomace is separated 
from the seeds in tubs of water as the best seeds will sink and the 
pomace will mostly float when the water is stirred. 

Other Types of Budding. — Besides the shield-budding already 
described there are several other methods in use for special purposes. 

Prong-budding is a modification of the common shield-budding 
as it uses a short prong or spur instead of the sunple bud. This is 



Fig. 34. 



Fig. 35. 







Fiu. 34. — Buds (jf sweet cherries set in stems of Mahaleb cherry seedlings in July and 
August. These buds remained dormant until the next spring, when the seedlings were cut 
to the new bud near the ground. See the growth from these buds in figure 35. (U. S. D. A.) 

Fig. 35. — One season's growth of sweet cherries budded in July and August on Mahaleb 
cherry stocks. See figure 34. (U. S. D. A.) 



commonly used in the propagation of nut trees on the Pacific coast. 
The English walnut is thus budded during the dormant season. 
The shield shaped bud is tied in place and also waxed. The opera- 
tion is somewhat like grafting and is often named twig-budding. 

Plate-budding differs from shield-budding in having a rectang- 
ular cut made in the bark or the stock. This piece of bark is turned 
down and a patch of bark of the same size and shape is cut from 
the scion. This bears a bud and is fitted into place on the stock. 
The flap of bark is brought back somewhat into place and tied. The 



PROPAGATION OF APPLES BY GRAFTING 



53 



flap of bark may be divided into two parts in which case the bud 
is placed near the center and is not hkely to be covered by the flaps 
when returned to place. The olive is sometimes propagated by 
this method of budding. 

Flute-budding differs from plate-budding in having a larger 
area of bark cut away entirely. The bark from the scion bearing 
the bud is of considerable size cut to fill the entire area. 

Chip-budding is so named because the piece from the scion 
bearing the bud includes a piece of bark and wood. It is beveled 
in mortise shape above and below and is dove-tailed into a cut in 
the stock made just to receive it. It should be waxed and tied in 
place. 

GRAFTING 

Tongue-Grafting. — The particular form of grafting known as 
tongue-grafting or whip-grafting may be practiced either in the 
top working of trees or in root grafting young trees. 
The method is illustrated in figure 36. First a long 
sloping cut is made on the lower end of the scion, 
then a sloping cut somewhat resembling a split is 
made as shown. The upper end of the stock is cut in 
exactly the same manner. The two tongues formed 
are slipped under each other and the union is pressed 
together as closely as possible. If the scion and stock 
are of the same diameter, the growing layers of cam- 
bium just under the bark are adjacent to each other 
and will grow together. This forms a perfect union 
between the scion and stock. The grafted portion is 
wrapped with waxed knitting cotton or with waxed 
bands of old muslin. The wrapping is to hold' the 
parts together and also to aid in excluding the air. 
The wax also aids in keeping out surplus water. 

Propagation of Apples by Grafting. — If apples are 
to be propagated by root grafting, the work may be 
done in the winter and much time of the nurseryman 
is saved. The roots are obtained from seedlings 
started from seed the preceding spring. These seed- 
lings are dug in the fall with the entire tap root. They 
are tied in bundles of about one hundred each and 
stored in wet sand or wet sawdust in the cellar or 
storehouse where they will not freeze. 

The scions for winter root grafting are cut from knitting'cotton' 



Fig. 36.— a 
root grafted 
apple using the 
tongue method. 
The scion and 
root are cut 
about alike, 
then slipped 
together tightly 
and wrapped 
with waxed 



54 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING 



improved varieties of apple trees, preferably of bearing age. These 
are of the last season's growth and bear shoot buds rather than 
fruit buds. 

The roots may be cut in pieces about four to six inches in length 
or they may be left entire. Of course the top of the seedling is cut 
off and discarded. Grafting of the scion and stock is then per- 
formed as already described. Bundles of root grafts, containing 
from twenty-five to fifty each are tied securely around the point 
of union. These are labeled with wooden labels written in black 
lead pencil. If painted labels are used the writing will not be 
obliterated by mold or discoloration of the wood. The labels should 
indicate the variety of the scion, the number in the bundle and 

the date of the work. The 
scions and roots should be 
trimmed somewhat evenly at 
thetopto make a neat bundle. 
Three, four, or more buds 
should remain on each graft. 
The young root grafts 
should be stored in the same 
manner as the scion, in wet 
sawdust, in well drained boxes 
in a cool cellar or storehouse. 
In warm climates they are 
sometimes stored on the north 
sides of buildings or merely 
put into the ground until 
planting time. 

Setting Out Grafts.— In the middle or late spring, grafts are 
set in rows far enough apart to allow of cultivation. An opening is 
made with a spade for each graft (Fig. 37.) If the trees are eight 
to twelve inches apart and the rows three and a half feet apart, 
thorough tillage can be given them through the growing season. 
After one or two years growth in the nursery, they are ready to be 
transplanted to the orchard. Trees may be more suitably shaped 
to suit the ideals of the orchardist if they are transplanted at the 
end of one year's growth. The period is counted from the time the 
young root grafts are set in the nursery. 

The depth of setting a young graft is important. Only one or 
two buds should be left to show above ground. The soil should be 
well firmed with the foot around each graft, but care must be exer- 




FiG. 37. — Root grafts and cuttings are rapidly- 
set out by thrusting them back of a spade which 
makes a narrow opening. (N. J. Station.) 



TOP WORKING BY CLEFT-GRAFTING 55 

cised to avoid breaking off the buds when the tramping is being 
done. Apple trees will grow well in rich, mellow, black loam. All 
damage to the trees must be avoided during the growth in the 
nursery. 

Cleft-Grafting. — This form of grafting is usually performed in 
the top of trees but may be used nearer the surface of the ground. 
Branches one-half inch in diameter or larger are cut across and 
split with a heavy knife or chisel. Two wedge-shaped scions are 
cut and inserted at the edges of the split twig in such a way as to 
bring one cambium layer of each in contact with the cambium 
layer of the cleft branch. The wound is then thoroughly waxed 
with rather hard grafting wax to exclude rain and prevent drying 
out. (Fig. 38.) 

Top Working Fruit Trees. — There are several reasons for desir- 
ing to top work fruit trees. 

1. The grower sometimes finds that the variety he has does 
not suit his purpose. 

2. He may find the variety is not the kind he supposed he was 
purchasing when the trees were obtained from the nursery. Labels 
are often misplaced and mistakes are apt to, occur. 

3. He may desire to insert a new kind on the tree which is al- 
ready in bearing. He may then place a new variety on one or more 
of the limbs to quickly test a new kind as they will bear earlier than 
if started on young trees. 

4. If he has a large block of trees of one variety that have 
proved to be self sterile, he may be getting plenty of blossoms with 
little or no fruit. He may then find it advisable to top graft a 
number of trees in the block with another variety which blossoms 
at the same season. The two kinds will furnish pollen to each 
other and fruit will be produced. 

5. Young orchards are sometimes set with well known varieties. 
The next year these may be top grafted or top budded with scions 
taken from the owner's orchard of bearing trees. The orchardist 
thus gets buds started which he is absolutely sure are true to name. 
He also has saved something on the purchase of his trees by select- 
ing cheap varieties from nursery catalogues. 

Top Working by Cleft-Grafting. — If apple trees are top worked 
for any of the above reasons, the method used may be either 
cleft-grafting or budding. If the cleft-grafting method is to be 
used, scions of the desired varieties may be saved from the preced- 
ing dormant season by storing them in wet sawdust in a cool cellar. 



56 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING 



These may then be inserted in the spring after growth has started, 
or a Httle before that. Care must be used to prune away competing 
branches and allow the new graft to have room, light and au' for 
growth. After the new grafts are well established more pruning 
away of the old sort may be done. 

Budding of Old Trees. — Many orchardists find much difficulty 
in top grafting old trees. The stocks and scions may fail to grow 
uniformly in size or the union may be incomplete, particularly in 
the heart wood. The result of an incomplete union may cause 
them to break during wind storms. For these reasons budding is 



Fig. 38. 



Fig. 39. 




Fig. 38. — Cleft grafting. Scions are cut beveled both ways as shown at the left, so as to 
fit closely at the cambrium and inner bark. The tool or cleaver shown is used to split the 
stock. Grafting wax is used to protect all the wounds as shown at the right. 

Fig. 39. — When trees are girdled by mice, rabbits, or farm implements, they are sometimes 
saved by bridge grafting. Two stages of the process are here shown. 

quite commonly practiced in top working of orchards whether the 
trees be young or old. When a shield bud is inserted on the side of 
the stock, the uneveness of growth will make no perceptible dif- 
ference. As little or no wood is present under the bark, there will 
be no weakness to cause trouble in the future. 

There is one serious difficulty, however, in top working orchard 
trees by the budding method. A single bud is inserted in each place 
and much more work is required to insert a sufficient number of 
buds than by the cleft-grafting or tongue-grafting methods. 

Top budding of orchard trees may be practiced with practically 
all kinds of orchard fruits. The work may be done at any time 



INLAYING 57 

during the growing season provided buds suited for the season are 
available. If the work is done in the spring or the early summer, 
dormant buds held over from the winter season are used. If the 
budding is to be done late in the summer or early fall, buds of the 
current year's growth may be inserted and allowed to start into 
growi.h the following spring. Practically no time is gained by the 
fall method and it is less common. 

Other Types of Grafting. — For special purposes there are sev- 
eral forms of grafting much less common than the cleft-grafting 
and tongue-grafting already described. 

Splice-grafting is fairly well described by its name. Two sloping 
cuts are made on the two pieces and these are laid together and tied. 

Saddle-grafting is so named because the scion is split and fet 
upon a wedge-shaped cut made at the top of the stock. This 
method is sometimes used near the surface of the ground in the pro- 
pagation of some grapes, A mound of earth may be thrown around 
the grafted point after it has been tied. 

Veneer-grafting is so named because an incision just through 
the bark is made on the stock. This is about an inch long. The 
base of the removed piece is cut off with a downward stroke leaving 
a little pocket. The scion is bevelled on one side slightly chiselled 
at the end to fit in this pocket and against the cut area of the stock. 
The graft must be very thoroughly tied to hold it in place. This 
method is much used in the propagation of ornamental and potted 
plants. It may be used when the scion and stock are of different 
sizes, A very small scion may be made to fit against the veneer 
cut on a large stock. 

Side-grafting. — Several forms are in use. A thin, wedge-shaped 
cut on the scion will fit under an opening in the bark of a large 
stock and the top of the stock need not be cut off until later. Bridge 
grafting (Fig. 39) may use this form of graft. 

The side-grafting cutting method differs from the last in having 
a wedge-shaped cut made on a small stock. This wedge is inserted 
under the bark of the scion or cutting. Careful tying is absolutely 
necessary. Waxing may also be used. Some grapes are grafted on 
roots by this method. 

Shield-grafting is similar to prong-budding and may be called 
scion budding. A beveled scion is fitted under the T-shaped cut 
on the bark of the stock. It is then well tied and waxed. 

Inlaying is so named because the wood of the scion is cut in 
exactly the same shape as the piece of wood removed from the 



58 BUDDING AND GRAFTING 

stock. If a trough-shaped cut is made in the side of the stock then 
the scion is cut to fit this trough. It is then tied in place and waxed. 

Grafting Wax. — There are three main ingredients in most graft- 
ing waxes, (1) resin (2) beeswax or paraffin (3) tallow, lard, linseed 
oil, or wagon grease. 

A good formula is four parts by weight of resin, two parts by 
weight of wax, and one part by weight of grease. This makes a 
wax of medium hardness. For greenhouse work or for use in hot 
weather, a harder wax may be desired. This is formed by using 
more resin and less grease. For outdoor work in cold weather a 
softer wax may be made by using less resin and more grease. If 
linseed oil is used in place of the heavier forms of grease, the wax is 
softer. 

Directions for Making Grafting Wax. — Take an old can which 
is not soldered. Melt the resin in this can, add the wax and lastly 
add the grease or oil. After thoroughly stirring, pour the melted 
mixture into a bucket to cool. Grease the hands and pull like taffy. 
It should be pulled until it is all uniformly light in color. Then lay 
it on greased paper to cool. 

When desired, a mass of the wax may be dipped mto warm water 
and thus warmed for use. It is commonly carried in a mass on the 
back of the left hand during grafting operations. 

Number 18 or number 20 knitting cotton is commonly pur- 
chased in balls. This may be wound off in skeins about eight inches 
long by wrapping on a board or book. The skein is cut at both 
ends and the strands tied by a cord around the center. This may 
be dipped into melted wax. Waxed knitting cotton may be softened 
to suit the desires of the grafter at any time by dipping it in warm 
water. 

NURSERY PROBLEMS 

Rabbits and mice often girdle trees or scar them badly and 
must be kept out of the nursery. The rabbit trap shown in figure 
40 will help to reduce the number of rabbits. Mice are present 
only when there is litter in which they may hide. 

Growth of trees is very important and the trees must be kept 
growing rapidly throughout the growing season. Have them cul- 
cultivated often and very carefully to avoid damaging the trees. 
Feed the trees well. The effect of fertilizer is shown in figure 41. 

Inspection of Nurseries. — State laws provide for the inspection 
of nurseries at least once a year. The nursery is examined for inju- 



INSPECTION OF NURSERIES 



59 



rious insects and diseases and a certificate of inspection is furnished. 
A copy of this is printed on the tag used in shipping each lot of 
trees and shrubs, either within the state or across Unes. The forms 
for these certificates vary somewhat in different states. That 
used in Tennessee is typical (Fig. 42.) 



Fig. 40. 



Fig. 41. 




Fig. 40. — A box trap for rabbits is easily "set" by catching a notch in the wire, W, on a tin 
strip tacked on the box at T. The rabbit "snaps' ' the trap by touching the wire. 

Fig. 41. — Twigs of one year's growth; left were from fertilized trees; right not fertilized. 



o < 



Was 

g i 3 



o 

3 



2 o C^ » o o 



Cf w 



tfl w E. 



a Q > 2 



w 3 2 w 



ta :i 



3. ^- H 



ii 



2. 



1-5 d 



■5 



^ <5 w 



SEASON OF 1919 
OERTIFIOATE NO. I7S 



T3 > 



TENNESSEE STATE BOtRO OF ENTOMOLOGY^ 

KNOXVILLE, TENNESSEE ) 

CERTIFICATE OF NURSERY INSPECTION 

This iS to Certify, That in accordance with an Act of the Legislature, approved April 17, I90S. the 
nuVsery grounds of R. A. Eubank, at Prospect Station. Tennessee, were inspected by Chas. Fenninglon, 
on August I7.Utl9. The growing nursery stock was apparently free from San Jose Scale and other 
dangerously injurious insect pests and plant diseases. Said nursery is equipped for fumigating all 
nursery stock. Thiscerlificate has reference to insects and diseases, and is not otherwise to be consider- 
ed as an endorsement of the parties to whom issued ; it does not apply to stock not grown in the afore- 
said nurseries unless such stock is covered by proper certiScate in favor of the nursery where grown. 
It is not transferable and may be revoked for cause. 

This certificate becomes invalid after August 1st, 19?^ and cannot be legally used after that dale. 
_ G. M. BENTLEY. State Entomologist and Plant Pathologist. 




Fig. 42. — Inspection form. This shipping tag may have the name and address on the 

other side. 



60 BUDDING AND GRAFTING 

NURSERY AND ORCHARD PROJECTS AND EXERCISES 

1. Methods of Budding. — With any suitable twigs make five or ten speci- 
mens of each of the methods of budding. 

2. Methods of grafting should be practiced in hke manner until each 
method is well learned by every one. 

3. Grafting wax should be made bj^ students. Also wax a supply of knit- 
ting cotton after winding it into skeins eight or ten inches long and cutting 
the ends. 

4. A peach niursery should be started as a home project. Follow the 
methods outhned in this chapter. Grow the stocks, bud them, prune the trees, 
cultivate and care for them for a season after the budding time. They may 
then be transplanted to orchard rows, or may be sold if the project is to close. 

5. A plum nursery project, including the three main types of plums, may 
be conducted in a similar way. 

6. A cherry nursery project should be planned by some students. Let it 
be conducted as suggested in No. 4. 

7. A nursery of apple and pear trees may be made interesting by using the 
root grafting method of propagation. Stocks may be purchased from large 
nurseries to save a year in growing them. Carry the project to completion as 
suggested in No. 4. Careful attention should be given to labels and records. 

8. Top working apple or other orchard trees is good practice. Use the 
budding and the cleft-grafting methods. When' new varieties are thus in- 
serted on trees of bearing age, note the success of the different methods used. 
Also note the time required to secure fruit on the new twigs. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare budding with grafting. 

2. State several principles of propagation by these methods. 

3. Describe shield-budding. 

4. Outline the plan for propagation of peaches by budding. 

5. What stocks are used for propagation of plums? 

6. What are the problems involved in securing stocks for budding? 

7. Describe prong-budding and plate-budding. 

8. Describe flute-budding and chip-budding. 

9. Describe the process of making a tongue-graft. 

10. Outhne the plan of propagation of apples by root-grafting. 

1 1 . How are materials and grafts stored during winter? 

12. How are the root grafts set in nursery rows? 

13. Describe cleft-grafting. What are its chief uses? 

14. Give several reasons for topworking apple trees. 

15. How does splice-grafting differ from tongue-grafting? 

16. Describe saddle-grafting and veneer-grafting. 

17. Describe side-grafting. How does the side-grafting cutting method differ 

from this? 

18. How does shield-grafting differ from budding? 

19. Describe inlaying. 

20. Give directions for making grafting wax. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 1,57. Propagation of Plants; 
710, Bridge Grafting. Nursery Manual, Bailey, Macmillan Company; Produc- 
tive Orcharding, Sears, J. B. Lippincott Company; American Apple Orchard, 
American Peach Orchard, Plums and Plum Culture, Waugh, Orange Judd 
Company. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 

Many rural sui*veys have been made touching upon the subject 
of home gardens in rural districts. It has been found that in many 
sections of America many farmers as well as many city and village 
people do not have their own home gardens. The excuse for this 
often is found in specialization. Farmers grow cotton, wheat, or 
other single crops and neglect the garden. Even truck farmers 
sometimes fail to have their own home gardens because they grow 
a few special crops, such as melons or tomatoes for market, and 
do not have a variety of crops for their own tables, or to be pre- 
served for wmter use at home. 

Importance of Home Gardening. — ^When comparisons are made 
between conditions found in small countries of Europe and in those 
of America the results are startling. In small areas we find the 
Europeans making a large part of their livelihood from their own 
gardens, while in America we find far too many of the people de- 
pending upon the nearby grocery store for their fresh vegetables 
in summer and for their canned goods in winter. This accounts 
very largely for the congestion in transportation by freight and 
express. Much time and labor are involved which should be used 
for better purposes. 

Home gardening is a healthful, rejuvenating occupation for 
old people ; it is good training and occupation for children (Fig. 43) ; 
it offers diversion for overtaxed minds ; it is a good occupation for 
women of all classes. Gardening, in the early morning hours, is 
pleasant and attractive to many who know from experience that 
it is not irksome. 

Economy of Time and Labor. — The home garden should be so 
planned as to save as much time and labor as possible. This can 
be done by laying off the garden so that horse labor may be used 
wherever it is possible. Wheel hoes (Fig. 44) will save an immense 
amount of hand labor, but to use these the rows must be long and 
not interrupted by small beds of vegetables. With a horse or a 
wheel hoe one person may cultivate ten times as rapidly as with 
other garden tools. The work is done better and production is 
increased. But little work should be left to be done by hand or by 

61 



62 



THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 



the hoe. Make the work easy so that all will want to increase the 
size of the garden next year instead of diminish it. A labor-saving 
marker is shown in figure 45. If much hand weecUng is required 
because the plants are put in small beds the garden work will be- 
come irksome and tedious. The gardener soon begms to figure how 
much time he is wasting and how limited is his reward for the labor 
expended. On the other hand, if large areas are used and good 
yields come from the least labor the results are encouraging. 

The Door-yard Garden. — In providing for a handy garden 
either m the country, village, or city (Figs. 46 and 47), there are 
a number of principles which should be borne in mind. Try to 




Fig. 43. 



-Boys of the Cleveland training garden, and the tools they learn to use. 
from U.S.D.A.) 



(Photo 



have an early sprmg garden, a good midsummer garden, and a 
good fall garden. There are crops suited to all of these seasons, 
and they should be selected with an aim to have fresh vegetables 
of different kinds at all these seasons. The crops suited to different 
seasons are classified in the next chapter. 

A succession of plantings of a number of these, such as beans, 
com and others will provide freshness and permanence in the 
garden. 

Do not aim to have everything grown in the garden, but try to 
have a good assortment so that vegetables enjoyed by different 
members of the family will be a\'ailable in their seasons. 



A SUGGESTIVE PLAN 



63 



Do not try too much to have vegetables out of season. We 
should be content to have fresh vegetables at the time they 
are due in the garden. A little forcing, however, is sometimes 
desu'able. 

Make good use of hotbeds and cold frames so as to have plants 
which requu-e transplanting ready for the open garden when warm 
weather comes. 

A Suggestive Plan. — In planning the garden all local condi- 
tions should be held in mind, the likes and dislikes of the family or 




Fia. 44. — A double wheel hoe may save much hand weeding in gardens. (Indiana Station). 

the market, the experience of the gardener,^ necessity for economy 
of space, tune of frosts in spring and fall, richness of soil, irrigation 
facilities, etc. 

The accompanying plan from Cornell Extension Bulletin 14 is 
given with dates for New York state assuming the time for the 
last spring frost as early in May. These dates may be varied ac- 
cording to latitude for the whole country. 

The rows should run the longest way of the garden. 



64 THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 

Plan for a Home Garden 



t 

^/ Hotbed 

I ^^ 

y Coldframe 



Seedbed for 
late plant for 
celery and 
cabbage, etc. 



-Asparagus - 



-Asparagus Rhubard- 



18" 



118" 



I 
30' 



30" 



Parsnips Yi, Sasfiy Yi Chard % 

* 
Peas (Smooth) ji followed by Late Cabbage ]{- 

* 
Peas (wrinkled) Yn followed by Late Celery J^s- 

Beans % & %i followed by Late Carrots Ke- 

Beans %n followed by Late Turnips %3 — 



18" 
\- 

18 

X — 

I 
30" 



-Cabbage Yn followed by Late Beets %j- 

-Carrots (two plantings) Ys & Ya 

-Onions (seed) Yn 



36" 

I 



IS" 



Early Potatoes K followed by Fall Spinach %- 

Mid-season Potatoes-^u 

Early Beets % — 



Late Potatoes Yu- 



36 ,. > . 

>< Green Onions (sets) ^s^ — -Tomatoes Y^a — — ■ 

36" 

X Lettuce Yn^ Radish *g§ — Tomatoes ^m, -Peppers Mo.-& Eggplants ^— 

36" 

i Early Sweet Corn Ks & ?23 

36" 

4 Early Spinach %— §Late Sweet Corn Y2i & /3o^~ 

36" 

X Early Turnips Yi §Bush Squash %z & Cucumbers Y2-\— 

24" 



•Transplants grown in seedbed. 

**Transplants bought, or grown under glass. 

§Remove only enough of the first crop to make room for planting. 



THE VEGETABLE BORDER 65 

A City Garden.— The following plan for a square rod garden, 
published by the extension division of the University of Minne- 
sota, is well suited to many village and city back yards. The fig- 
ures at the right indicate the inches between rows. 



Plan for a Square-Rod Garden. 
.Radishes and carrots followed by tomatoes . 

. Early peas 

. Early peas 

.Radishes and carrots followed by tomatoes. 

. Early peas 

.Early peas 

. Lettuce followed by tomatoes 

. String beans 

. String beans 

.Spinach followed by tomatoes 

. Early beets 

.Early beets 



12 

is 

12 

is 
is 

12 

is 

18 
12 
18 

is 
i2 

12 




Fig. 45. — A haii ly home made marker for garden rows. As it stands in the drawing four 
rows are marked two feet apart. If it be reversed three rows are n arked three feet apart. 
One may be made for other widths of rows. This one may be pulled by hand. 

The Vegetable Border.— It is well to establish a permanent 
vegetable border along one side of the garden, either in the country 
or in the city. This border may contain such plants as would not 
require an abundance of cultivation, but which would require an 
abundance of mulching and manuring. This border may be located 
5 



66 



THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 



along the fence at the side of the yard and may be several feet in 
width. Here we should find such crops as rhubarb, asparagus, 
horse radish and other perennial herbs. Heavy applications of 



Fig. 46. 




Fig. 47. 




Fig. 46. — Gardening in back yards and vacant lots is good home project work. It is some- 
times conducted under difficulties. 

Fig. 47. — The home project gardens in villages help to transform unsightly lots into pro- 
ductive, healthful places. 

manure can be put on this border in the fall and the ground can 
be thoroughly mulched in the early spring with straw or other 



A FARM GARDEN 67 

coarse litter. The mulching may be done after the plants have 
come through the ground. It servos the purpose of conserving 
moisture, keeping the ground mellow and smothering weeds. 

Do not make the mistake of having the vegetable border shaded 
by trees. Let it be at the opposite side of the yard rather than 
under large shade trees or fruit trees. 

If the vegetables here referred to are to be planted in the regu- 
lar garden they should be along one side rather than through the 
center. If they are at a distant side of the garden from the house 
they will allow the gardener to give more attention to the crops 
which require frequent planting and frequent tillage. 

Horse-culture Gardening. — The annual crops in the garden 
make up b}' far the largest area. They should be planted in rows 
far enough apart to allow the use of a horse cultivator between the 
rows. This would mean about three or three and one-half feet, 
depending upon the amount of land available. A little room should 
be allowed at the ends of the rows for turning with a horse and cul- 
tivator. It is plainly evident that the rows should be as long as 
convenient, and should at least run the length of the area. Less 
space will be wasted at the turning ends, and less time will be 
required for turning. 

Some gardeners will raise the objection that they do not care 
for long rows of some of the crops in the garden. In that case half 
rows, quarter rows or less can be planted and several crops will be 
found growing in the same row. 

There are some crops which would be easily covered with a 
horse cultivator unless great care is exercised. An adjustable cul- 
tivator may be used so that the teeth or shovels will be some dis- 
tance from the plants. (Fig. 48 — B. C.) Another remedy for the 
difficulty is to have growing with the small vegetables a few plants 
of some larger kind. For example, when carrots, parsnips or salsify 
are very young they need something along with them, such as rad- 
ish or turnip to show the location of the row. This makes it possi- 
ble to go through with the cultivator much more easily, and 
thus prevent the smothering of the crop by growth of weetls. 
Weeds should not be allowed to get ahead of the crop while waiting 
for the crop to become large enough to cultivate. Some gardeners 
go through ahead of the cultivator and sprinkle lime dust along the 
row so that the cultivation can be done with less danger of covering. 

A Farm Garden. — The accompanying plan of a garden 100 by 
200 feet from Circular 198, Illinois Station, is arranged for horse 



68 



THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 



cultivation. A wheel hoe could be used in a garden of this size. 
Always change size, kinds of vegetables, etc., to suit your condi- 
tions: The dates of planting may need to vary considerably. 

Plan for a Farmer's Garden 100 X 200 Feet 



Planting (4' 
Dates 



Apr. \< 



-Asparagus- 



-Rhubarb- 



-Winter Onions- 



-Early Potatoes — followed by Late Turnips and Winter Radish- 
— Early Potatoes — followed by Late Turnips and Winter Radish- 
— Early Potatoes — followed by Late Turnips and Winter Radish- 

Early Peas — followed by Pickles — ■ — Turnips 

-Radishes Leaf Lettuce — followed by Beans Spinach — 

Onion Sets 



-Carrots — 
-Parsnips- 



Apr. 



-Radishes- 



-Early Cabbage- 



-Peas- 



— Onion Seed- 

Salsify 

Beets 

-Head Lettuce- 



-Parsley- 
-Chard- 



-followed by Celery- 
-foUowed by Beans — 



-Horse Radish- 



-Summer Cabbage — followed by Fall Spinach- 

Early Sweet Corn — 

—Early Sweet Corn — 

Tomatoes 



—Cauliflower 

-String Beans 



May 15^ 



June 



July 



— Cucumbers Summer Squash Winter Squash Watermelons Muskmelons- 
—30 hills 5x5 ft. 30 hills 5x5 ft. 30 hills 6x5 ft. 45 hills 6x5 ft. 50 hills 5x5 ft.- 

Sweet Corn 



514' Eggplant- 

?i4'- 



-Sweet Potatoes- 
Pepper 

— Late Cabbage - 

— Late Potatoes- 

— Late Potatoes- 

— Late Potatoes— 

— Sweet Corn 



-Lima Beans- 



Small Market Gardens. — Almost any garden may have a sur- 
plus of some of the crops at any time of the year, but the market 
garden must be distinguished from the home garden by having 
something in the garden available for market at nearly all time? in 
the growing season. 

It is even more important with the market garden to have the 
plans well made regardmg size, direction of rows, distance between 
rows, succession cropping, companion cropping, etc. 

If much hand work is required in the market garden the profit 
to be derived from the crops is entirely lost. It is essential that the 
horse methods of tillage and planting be employed in the market 
garden even more than in the home garden. Hand planters are 
used for rapidly dropping the seed and covering it. 

Extreme diligence must be exercised to keep the garden full of 
the crops which are going to make a financial return to the gar- 
dener. When a crop is too old for harvesting it must be turned 
under or otherwise destroyed to make room for a more profit- 



THE TRUCK GARDEN 



69 



able crop. The ground must be used to its best advantage 
at all times. 

Another Farm Garden Plan. — The garden plan 90 by 240 feet 
is taken from Circular 14 of the Kentucky Station. The space 
between rows will allow for horse tillage in most of the garden. 

Farm Garden Plan, 90 X 2Ifi Feet 



Hot-beds I Cold-frames 



Perennial Crops. 



7'-0" 



"Early Carrots 



]^EarIy Beets 



Head Lettuce 



"Leaf Lettuce 



"Radishes 



"Onion Sets, for Bunch Onions, followed by Swiss Chard 



"Onion Seed, for Big Onions, followed by Late Celery 



20'-0' 



Early Peas, followed by Late Tomatoes 



|2'-6'' 



Midseason Peas; followed by Fall Cabbage 



I 2'-6'' 



Early Cabbage; followed by Late Beans 



I 3'-0" 



Early Cauliflower; followed by Brussels Sprouts 



I 3'-0" 



Early Beans; followed by Late Cabbage 



I 3'-0" 



Early Spinach; followed by Late Peas 



|2'-6" <y 
I 3'-0" 



Kohlrabi; followed by Fall Beans 



Bush Lima Beans; followed by Turnips 



Okra; followed by Fall Spinach 



}5'-0'' 



Early Tomatoes; followed by Kale — Late Tomatoes- 



Peppers 



Cucumbers- 



Muskmelons — 



Bush Squash 



IS'-O'' 



Watermelon — 



Winter Squash 



G'-O" 



Sweet Potatoes 



4'-0" 



4'-0" 



Early .Sweet Corn; followed by Second-crop Potatoes 



|4'-0" 



Early Potatoes; followed by Late Sweet Corn 



Parsnips 



Salsify 



|3'-0" 



I 2'-0" 
|2'-0" 



-240-it.- 



The Truck Garden. — Crops grown in the truck garden are 
usually produced on a larger scale than m the small market garden. 
They are usually found within a reasonable distance of very large 
markets so the products can be shipped or hauled directly to 
markets which are not easily overstocked even if the crops are very 
large. Truck growing may be extended hundreds of miles away 
from such markets if the number of kinds of crops is limited. Truck 
farmers may produce melons, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, sweet 



70 



THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 



corn and other special crops which will stand shipping for long 
chstances. 

The planting plan to be followed depends entirely upon the 
latitude, soil and other conditions of the region. The planting 
should be timed so as to meet a favorable season in the markets 
which are to be supplied. Growers in the extreme north should not 
try to produce extra early crops, but should strive to meet the late 
advances in price; those through the middle latitudes should have 
their crops ready to meet the demands in the large markets after 
the more southern growers have exhausted their crops. In the 
most southern latitudes earliness is of prime importance. It is the 
early market which the growers here must meet. Their reward is 




Fig. 48. — -Three good one-horse implements for garden culture. A, planker for crushing 
clods and smoothing the surface. B, spike-tooth cultivator for producing a loose mulch. 
C, shovel cultivator for more thorough and deeper tillage. B and C are adjustable in width. 
(Indiana Station). 

found by having their crops so early that they find no competition 
from other sections farther north. 

Gardens for Different Seasons. — The early spring garden 
should contain those crops which have withstood the winter cold 
and are ready to harvest in early spring. In some latitudes this 
would include turnips and kale for greens and winter onions. The 
spring garden should also include the crops which can be grown in 
a very short time, such as loose leaf lettuce, head lettuce, radish, 
asparagus, rhubarb, English garden peas, spinach, etc. 

Soon after the early spring garden we should find such crops as 
carrots, beets, white turnips and second crops of many of the earlier 
sprmg vegetables. 



MODIFYING THE SOIL 71 

Along through the summer there should be fresh supplies of 
early cabbage, snap beans, sweet corn for roasting ears, okra, if 
desired, later growths of beets, carrots and turnips. There should 
be plenty of cantaloupes, water melons, cucumbers, peppers, toma- 
toes and new Irish potatoes. 

Later in the fall we should have supplies of the summer vege- 
tables for drying or canning. A number of the vegetables already 
mentioned can be ready at this time. We should have winter cab- 
bage, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes and celery ready to go into 
storage, and there should be late plantings of English garden peas, 
lettuce, radish, spinach, and others. 

As winter comes on we may find the number of fresh vegetables 
greatly reduced except in the extreme southern states. However, 
there may be green winter onions grown from shallot bulbs, turnips, 
kale and rape for greens, a number of vegetables in the coldframe, 
such as turnips, lettuce, beets, carrots, etc. Celery transplanted 
to boxes in the cellar may be fresh throughout the winter season. 
An abundance of coldframe space or deep pits will add greatly to 
the winter possibilities. 

GARDEN SOILS 

The home vegetable garden should have the best soil on the 
place. Rich black loam is best. Any soil can be made rich and 
black l)y the addition of enough vegetable material. This may be 
applied in the form of barnyard manure. A number of applica- 
tions of manure well turned under will improve almost any soil 
and make it better for gardening. 

Best Type of Soil. — For most vegetables soil which has consid- 
erable sand in its makeup is better than soils which are largely made 
up of clay. Sandy loam is a soil which contains a larger propor- 
tion of sand than clay loam. 

Sandy soils are more easily warmed, are better drained, will 
respond to modifying treatment more quickly and produce ear- 
lier crops of vegetables. 

Clay loams are colder, hold moisture better, hold plant food 
better, are less responsive to liming and manuring, produce crops 
later, but on the whole produce as much of most of the crops as do 
the lighter soils. 

Modifying the Soil. — On farms where the most ideal garden 
soils are not found they can be amended and made suitable for 
gardening by the addition of organic material, by thorough, deep 



72 THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 

tillage, by discing the surface well, and by close attention to the 
best methods of handling them at the proper time. (Fig. 49.) A 
sandy soil, for example, can be plowed when rather wet or rather 
dry without injury; a clay loam, on the contrary, must never be 
plowed when too wet or too dry. 

Liming. — One of the best methods of improving a garden soil 
is to thoroughly lime it. The application of 500 to 1000 pounds of 
burned lime, or twice this amount of ground limestone will make 
a marked difference in the physical character of the soil. Lime will 
make sandy soil more tenacious by binding the particles together. 
This tends to make it more retentive of moisture and plant food. 




Fig. 49. — When the soil for a new garden is first plowed the prospect for a good garden 
may be very discouraging. The clods may be crushed by a planker drag or an acme harrow. 
This should be done immediately after plowing, before the clods become hard. 

Lime added to clay soils tends to make them more porous, lose 
water more rapidly, unlock the plant food more readily, and they 
are warmed more easily. Many of our garden crops are much im- 
proved by the addition of lime. It is best, however, not to add 
lime of a caustic nature to those portions of the garden which are 
to be used that year for the growth of Irish potatoes and other 
root crops. The liming for those portions of the garden should be 
at least one year in advance of the growth of such crops. 

Adding Humus and Manure. — One of the best ways of adding 
organic matter to soils is to grow green crops of rye, vetch, crimson 
clover or other crops which will grow during the late fall, winter 



TILLAGE 73 

and early spring. After these have produced a few inches of growth 
in the spring they may be turned under and the ground welj 
disced, rolled and harrowed. If enough lime is present even a 
heavy application of such green manure will not make the soil 
sour. The humus obtained from the rotting of green manure pro- 
duces remarkable results in the increase of crops of all kinds. 
Green manure is much cheaper than stable manure if time can be 
allowed for its growth. 

Many garden crops will stand heavy applications of barnyard 
manure without injury. If manure can be obtamed without too 
great an expenditure of money and labor it is the quickest way of 
improving our garden soils. Applications vary all the way from 
three tons to twenty tons per acre, depending upon the crops to be 
grown. If very heavy applications are to be made the manure 
should be thoroughly incorporated with the soil by very deep plow- 
ing, discing, rolling and harrowing. 

One of the greatest dangers from the use of heavy applications 
of green manure or stable manure is that a pad or layer of organic 
matter may be placed on the bottom of the furrow, and the moist- 
ure supply shut off during the gromng season. This condition 
must be avoided. Thorough spreading of the manure and thorough 
harrowing and discing after the plowing will tend to incorporate 
the soil with the organic matter and thus allow capillary moisture 
to continue rising as it is needed by the growing crop. 

Gardeners using commercial fertilizers always find it profit- 
able. It is best to study the special needs of each crop and supply 
the particular forms of fertilizer which are needed in each case. 
A complete fertilizer is one which contains all three of the so-called 
fertilizing elements, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. If the 
ingredients are purchased for supplyhig each of these three chem- 
icals they can be mixed by the gardener in proportions best suited 
for each crop. It is not good practice to buy a complete fertilizer 
for all kinds of crops because the same mixture will not suit them 
all equally well. The dealer or manufacturer who does the mixing 
usually applies unnecessary filler, which requires the expenditure 
of money and labor in shipping and hauling. 

Tillage. — The preparation of a good seed bed is one of the marks 
of good gardening. Deep, thorough plowing, harrowing immedi- 
ately after plowing, planking or rolling to fine the surface, harrowing 
the surface to maintain a loose mulch, all are valuable practices in 
the garden (Fig. 48). Never let the soil become cloddy, hard or 



74 THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 

crusty. Frequent, shallow tillage is infinitely better than crusty 
soil followed by deep plowing. Spring tooth cultivators which are 
adjustable are excellent for garden tillage. 

Cover Crops. — Much of the garden will not be occupied during 
winter by money crops or other strictly garden crops. All vacant 
spaces should be covered with a green growing crop sown as early 
as the vegetables are taken off, or the cover crop may be sown 
between the rows of tomatoes, corn, and similar crops, after til- 
lage is over. If the cover crop is sown in August it will make a 
green covering throughout the winter, and will produce an abund- 
ance of green manure for the addition of humus the following 
spring. Among the best crops for growth in the winter are dif- 
ferent forms of winter gram, crimson clover and hairy vetch. 

Drainage. — Under-drainage is not as expensive as the beginner 
is likely to think. If the soil tends to wash under-drainage will 
tend to prevent it. If water stands on the soil under-dramage, of 
course, will help to remedy the difficulty. 

One of the essentials of successful market gardening or truck 
gardening is to have crops produced at the right season of weather 
conditions. Drainage will help better than almost anything else 
in overcoming climatic and weather difficulties. Soils that are well 
under-drained will be warmed more quickly and are therefore 
much better for gardening. 

Irrigation. — Watering garden crops at the right season is highly 
important. In the average country home garden this may be 
impossible. Rainfall must be depended upon. In such cases fre- 
quent, shallow tillage is to be recommended. This will conserve 
the moisture from one rain to the next. Some have called this 
"horse-leg irrigation." Frequent use of the horse cultivator saves 
much expense for artificial irrigation. 

The overhead system of irrigation is not as expensive as some 
might suppose. Water pipes placed on rows of posts running 
through the garden are provided with special nozzles along one 
side of the pipes. These nozzles are three and one-half or four feet 
apart. The lines of pipe are forty or fifty feet apart. Of course 
these must be connected with a water supply pipe which may run 
in the ground and rise to each of the lines of pipe. Special unions 
are required to allow the rolling of the water lines so as to throw 
the water as desired to either side (Fig. 50.) 

The water supply for irrigation may be from wells, creeks or 
other sources. The water may be supplied through pipes either 



GARDEN TOOLS 



75 



from an overhead tank, a reservoir on a hill or by direct pressure 
from a pump running all the time the irrigating is being done. 

In the extended regions of the arid West where irrigating pro- 
jects are in use, irrigation is so well understood that this need not 
be described here. Under such circumstances water is supplied in 
great abundance at stated intervals, and may be applied to the 
crops either by the flooding and furrow methods or otherwise. 

Garden Tools. — Hand tools of various kinds for the garden are 
shown in figures 51 and 52. The garden rake is one of the best hand 
tools, as it will help in prep'iring the seed bed, destroy clods, remove 




Fig. 50. — Irrigation with soray ijipes can be easily operateJ. Tlie nuzzles are about three 
feet apart. The hand lever rolls the pipe to spray in any direction. (Skinner Irrigation Co.) 

rubbish, etc. (Fig. 53.) The rake is useful in planting as shown 
in figure 54. Later it is the best tool for conseiTing moisture and 
killing small weeds when they are germinating from their seed 
coats, even before they show above the surface of the ground. 

The hoe, although a very common garden tool, is less valuable 
than the rake. At planting time, however, it is very useful, and 
if weeds are allowed by careless gardening, the hoe is an efficient 
tool for destroying them. 

As gardeners learn to use the level culture system of gardening 



76 



THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 



the hoe is no longer needed for hilling up the plants. Numerous 
small garden tools such as twine winders, hand dibbers, hand 
weeders, (Fig. 51) seed droppers, pruning shears and others need 
not be specially described; their names indicate their use well. 
Combination wheel hoes and planters are very desirable imple- 
ments for the home garden. (Figs 44 and 55). At planting time, 
after the ground is prepared for the seed the planter will save 
enough time to repay for the purchase. After much of the plant- 

FiG. 52. 




^U'k'kVVVVVVV 



i>lQ. 51. — Handy tools for transplanting plants, and weeding beds; pruning shears at left. 
Fig. 52. — Most necessary hand tools for garden work. 

ing is done only a few minutes are required for transforming the 
implement into a good garden cultivator. Some wheel hoes have 
no seed attachments; these are much cheaper and are always 
ready for use as cultivators. (Fig. 44.) 

So much lias been said regarding the use of a horse in the garden 
that we should give special attention to the suitable horse culti- 
vators. Two main kinds may be recommended. 



GARDEN TOOLS 



77 




Fio. 53. — The garden rake ia the best tool for the final preparation of a seed bed. v^Iiancsota 

Station.) 








Fig. 54. — Planting seeds. The rake is used to cover the seetl.s and firm the soil. It naturally 
leaves a mulch of loose soil on top. (Minnesota Station). 



78 THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 

The spike-tooth cultivator which is quickly adjusted by the 
use of a central lever is well suited to gardens having loose, friable 
soil. (Fig. 48). This may be made so narrow as to go between the 
rows of sugar beets or other plants which are planted only twenty 
or twenty-four inches apart. On the other hand, this may be set 
wide enough to till the whole middle where the rows are fully three 
feet apart. 

The spring tooth cultivator, having about seven two-inch teeth, 
is a less expensive implement. This form of cultivator is adjust- 
able so as to suit rows of different width, and so as to throw the 
surplus earth either from or toward the row as desired. 

Judging Home Garden Projects. — It is well for the gardener 
to know on what points his garden may be scored by instructors or 
others who visit it from time to time. The following score card 
is suggested by the U. S. Bureau of Education. It may be modi- 
fied to suit local conditions. 

/Score Card for Judging Home Gardens 

A — General appearance 20 

Arrangement of rows 5 

Freedom from weeds 5 

Cultivation and care 5 

Proper thinning 5 

B — Choice of vegetables 15 

For home use 5 

For marketing 5 

For canning 5 

C — Freedom from pests 15 

Spraying for insects 5 

Spraying for disease 5 

Other remedial measures 5 

D —Evidences of 15 

Continuous cultivation 5 

Companion cropping 5 

Succession cropping 5 

E— Care of Tools 10 

F — ^Value of produce 15 

Used at home 5 

Sold in the market 5 

Used for canning 5 

G — Accuracy of garden records 10 

100 



SURVEYS, EXERCISES, AND PROJECTS 79 

SURVEYS, EXERCISES, AND PROJECTS 

1. Garden Survey. — Plan a garden survey of your community. Let it 
cover the conditions for the last year or two. Size of garden. Number of 
kinds of vegetables grown. Chief products. Uses made of products. Number 
of people in each family. Whether horse culture was employed. 

2. Review the facts obtained in above survey, or conduct independent 
survey to determine the profits or income from gardens having a surplus to sell. 

3. Determine from the facts obtained how many families produce most 
of their vegetables for (1) summer use, (2) for winter use. Also find methods 
of storing, preserving, drying, etc. 

4. Calculate the total amoimt of money saved to the community by home 
gardening instead of buying products needed. 




Fig. .5.5. — One attachinent of the wheel cultivator is a small turning plow which may be 
used to cover grass and weeds. This boy makes good use of it. (Bateman Mfg. Co.) 

5. Determine approximately the time and amount of labor lost where 
horse culture is not used. 

6. Garden Plans. — Draw several of the best garden plans found in the 
community. Then draw several of the poorest plans, where beds are chiefly 
used. Contrast these and replan the poor ones. 

7. Study vegetable borders found in the community. Wliat crops are 
grown in them? What methods of mulching and culture are used? 

8. Make some ideal home garden plans to include all vegetables which 
should be grown in the spring, summer and fall gardens. 

9. Truck Gardens. — ^Visit market gardens and truck gardens, and study the 

10. Tools and Implements. — Make a list of the garden planters, wheel 
hoes, other kinds of cultivators, and other kinds of garden tools and implements 
found in the community. Determine if possible why some people have these 
and others do not. Are they purchased because of fads, or for their actual 
benefits? 

11. Garden Soils. — If two or more types of soil are found in the com- 



80 THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 

munity, determine which is best for gardens in general, and which for special 
crops, such as irisn potatoes, sweet potatoes, peanuts, and others. 

12. Make inquiry to tind what gardeners in the community have at- 
tempted to modify their soils to improve the yields of garden products. 
What methods have been most successful in this respect? 

13. Liming. — Conduct a project of soil improvement through green manur- 
ing and liming. 

14. Manuring and Fertilizing. — Conduct experiments in home gardens 
or on the school grounds, to compare the benefits from (1) green manuring, 
(2) use of barnyard manure, (3) commercial fertiUzer containing considerable 
nitrogen. Crops for these experiments may be corn, potatoes, cabbage, or 
other crops grown on rather extensive scale. 

15. Tillage. — 'Compare by experiment, (1) deep and shallow plowing (2) 
fall and spring plowing. Also compare deep and shallow cultivation of corn 
and other garden crops. 

16. Cover Crops. — Some students should conduct home projects in im- 
provement of soils through cover crops, using them in the spring as green 
manures. Comparison should be made with plots left bare during the winter. 

17. — ^Drainage. — If gardens with under-drainage can be found in the com- 
munity, make a study of the benefits resulting therefrom. 

18. Irrigation. — -If any system of irrigation is in use in the vicinity, co- 
operate with the owner in determining the benefits derived from irrigation. 
Make a Ust of the items of expense for installing and operating. 

19. Some student may find it possible to conduct a project of installing 
and operating overhead irrigation, (Fig. 50), or some other inexpensive system. 
Records should be kept of the cost of installing, cost of operation, and results 
obtained. Yields should be compared on irrigated and nonirrigated plots of 
the same crops. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Enumerate the benefits of home gardening. 

2. In what ways may time and labor be saved by the home gardener? 

3. What are some of the elements of success with the door yard garden? 

4. What is meant by the vegetable border? 

5. What plans are necessary if horse-culture is to be used? 

6. Distinguish between the home garden, the small market garden, and the 

truck garden. 

7. Make a Ust of garden crops to be started at different seasons. 

8. Describe a good type of soil for successful gardening. 

9. What are good ways of adding humus to soils? 

10. What are the effects of liming sandy soils? Clay soils? 

11. Give some directions regarding the use of commercial fertilizers. 

12. What are the advantages of deep plowing? Of shallow cultivation? 

13. What are some good winter cover crops for your section? 

14. When should they be sown? With what fruit or garden crops can they be 

used? 

15. What are the advantages of under-drainage for gardens? 

16. Describe plans for irrigation with which you are familiar. 

17. Make a Ust of garden tools which you consider essential for good results. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 218, School Garden; 2.56, Pre- 
paration of Vegetables for the Table; 460, Frsimes as a Factor in Truck 
Gardening; 856, Control of Diseases and Insects; 871, Vegetables as Conserv- 
ers of other Foods; 879, Home Storage of Vegetables; 884, Saving Garden 
Seed; 916, Community Drying Plant; 934, Home Gardening in South; 937, 
Farm Garden in North; 959, Spotted Garden Slug; 984, Farm and Home Dry- 
ing of Fruits and Vegetables; 1044, City Home Garden; 1196, Containers for 
Vegetables and Fruits; 1211, Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables. 



CHAPTER VIII 
HOTBEDS, COLDFRAMES, AND FLOWER PITS 

The chief purpose of hotbeds is to start plante early enough to 
have them mature m time for market or in some cases to get them 
to mature before fall frosts kill them. A secondary purpose of hot- 
beds is to grow vegetables of edible maturity out of their natural 
season. Examples of crops started early in hotbeds are tomatoes 
peppers, eggplant, cabbage, kohl-rabi, cauliflower, and others. 
Among the crops that may be grown to edible maturity in hotbeds 
are those which mature quickly and wliich do not require great 
heat. Examples are lettuce, radish, spinach, and sometimes car- 
rots, beets, and turnips. 

Frames for Hotbeds. — The standard size of hotbed frames is 
six fe'^.t from the low side at the south to the high side at the north. 
In length east and west there is no limit. They are however com- 
monly made into a length which is some multiple of three feet, 
that is, either three, six, nine, twelve, etc. The low side of the 
frame should be about one foot above the soil mside. The high 
side should be about eighteen mches above the soil inside. The 
difference in height gives a slope to the glass covering toward the 
south so that the rays of the sun will enter the pit better. 

How Frames are Made. — If a piece of two by four is placed in 
each corner of the frame and the boards nailed to these, the frame 
may be easily constructed. The two end pieces must be cut at a 
bevel to agree with the sloping of the bed. If a six-inch slope is to 
be given as suggested, a board six feet long and six mches wide may 
be marked diagonally from one corner to the other and sawed on 
this mark. This will give the two pieces needed for the two sloping 
ends. 

Glass for Hotbeds. — Sash made especially for hotbeds may be 
easily constructed. These have the supporting strips for the glass 
running from end to end without any cross piece except at the 
head of the sash and under the glass at the foot of the sash. These 
two hold the long strips in place. The glass may be of any desired 
length and of a width to fit the distance between the strips. There 
are two methods of placing the glass in the sash. (1) The glass 
may be "butted,' ' that is, placed edge to edge. (2) The glass may 
6 SI 



82 HOTBEDS, COLDFRAMES, AND FLOWER PITS 

be lapped about one-fourth inch so that the water will shed off as 
with shingles on a roof. The lapping is usually preferred as heavy 
rains will not leak into the bed so badly. 

Improvised sash may be used on hotbeds, that is, windows from 
any old building may be placed end to end, fastened together by 
two strips along their edges inlaid or screwed so as to hold the two 
halves. The entire window is thus used as one sash on the hotbed. 
In case such glass is to be adapted for this use, it may be necessary 
to make the frames so as to fit the glass instead of making them of 
standard size. 

Placing the Hotbed Frame. — It is best to dig a pit a little larger 
than the hotbed frame. This may be one to two feet or more in 
depth. Put about one foot of fresh horse manure in the bottom of 
the pit and tramp it thoroughly. Six or eight inches of good garden 
soil should be placed on the manure. A part of this may be put 
in place before the frame is lifted on the manure but some of the 
soil should extend up into the frame after it is placed. Compare 
these features in figures 56 and 57. Soil or manure should be banked 
up well around the outside of the frame to exclude all possible 
drafts of cold air. The glass may now be put on and after a few 
days the first extreme heating of the manure will be over. Then 
the soil is smoothed and watered if necessary, ready for planting 
the seeds (Fig. 58). 

How the Hotbed is Heated. — There are two ways in which the 
hotbed receives heat. (1) The chemical change due to the rotting 
of manure gives off a great deal of heat. This being under the 
plants forces growth somewhat rapidly. If this heat is lacking the 
bed is called a coldframe. (2) The sun heat is trapped by the glass 
and held in the bed. This is made clear by the statement that sun- 
light goes through clear glass without heating it, but when it 
strikes the soil or other objects inside, the light is changed into heat 
which cannot get out through the glass readily. 

Using Flats in Hotbeds. — Boxes about twelve by eighteen 
inches or larger, and four inches in depth, will be of use in growing 
seeds in the hotbeds. Fill the flats with three inches of soil and 
after planting the seeds in them place them on the soil in the hot- 
bed. When transplanting time comes these are easily lifted out 
and taken to where the transplanting work is done. In cold weather 
the transplanting should be inside to prevent chilling the plants. 

Ventilation of Hotbeds. — On wann sunny days the beds will 
become too hot and ventilation is necessary. (Fig. 59.) A ther- 



VENTILATION OF HOTBEDS 



83 



mometer in the corner of the bed will serve as a guide to the gar- 
dener in this matter. Cool season crops should not be required to 
stand a temperature of more than eighty degrees in the day time, 
and seventy degrees would be better. Warm season crops, such 




Plan of manure hotbed. The sash is six feet long and slopes to the south. 



Fig. 57.— Cross section of a six-foot hotbed. The bottom of the frame is planed a little 
below ground and a pit is dug about 18 inches deep. This is filled with fresh horse manure, 
on top of which is placed G inches of rich garden soil. The glass sash on top slopes toward the 
south to catch the sun. 

as tomatoes, peppers and eggplant may stand a temperature of 
eighty to ninety degrees. 

Ventilation is accomplished by raising the sash at the north end 



84 HOTBEDS, COLDFRAMES, AND FLOWER PITS 

and supporting it with two sticks at the corners of the sash. When 
the weather becomes very warm, the sash may be removed en- 
tirely during the day. 

Ventilation not only controls the temperature of the bed but 
also supplies the necessary fresh au* and helps keep surplus water 
vapor from accumulating inside. Too much heat and too much 
water vapor is certain to cause damage to the plants. Damping- 
off fungus is a common trouble in hotbeds and poor ventilation is 
apt to help start it. 

Watering. — As the plants are growing under the cover, water- 




FiG. 58. — A three-sash hotbed ready for use. (Kentucky Station). 

ing is a matter which must be given close attention. If too much 
water is applied, the soil will become soggy and the plants will turn 
yellow and suffer for want of air in the soil. If the bed is properly 
ventilated, considerable watering is necessary because the heat of 
the bed will dry out the soil. If the bed is filled with water, the 
manure underneath may stop heating. Light applications of water 
nearly every day is the best plan with the hotbed. 

The Hotbed Becomes a Coldframe. — After some weeks the 
manure in the hotbed will fail to give out heat because the rotting 
is advanced so much. In this condition it may be considered merely 
a coldframe as it gets its heat only from the sun through the glass. 



FRAMES FOR BEDS 



85 



Hotbeds which are started in late winter or early spring may 
continue their heat from the rotting manure long enough to last 
until the warm spring weather has come. The plants in the bed 
may no longer need artificial bottom heat. 

Coldframes Compared with Hotbeds.— The chief difference 
between a coldframe and a hotbed is the absence of bottom heat 
in the coldframe. In manj^ cases, however, the coldframe has no 
glass but has m place of it a covering of muslin. 

The muslin cover of the bed may be stretched and tacked on 




Fig. 59. — Students of Hampton Institute working in hotbeds and coldframes. Methods 
of ventilating are here shown. (U.S.D.A.) 

frames which are fastened in place by wooden buttons or may be 
merely laid upon the bed. In many cases the muslin may be tacked 
directly to the frame along the upper side. The other edge of the 
cloth is tacked to a strip of wood or pole which serves as a roller. 
To remove the cloth, the roller wuids up the cloth as it is rolled 
toward the upper side of the frame. The bed is quickly covered 
by merely unrolling the cloth and letting the pole hang over the 
lower side. 

Frames for Beds. — Sloping frames are not always constructed 
for coldframes. Boards are placed on edge and nailed together 



86 



HOTBEDS, COLDFRAMES, AND FLOWER PITS 



at the corners and the cloth or glass is placed over the bed. It 
is not desired to have very much heat but the frames may be 
merely to protect the plant from the frosts or other extreme odd 
at night. 

Uses of Coldframes in the North. — In the colder latitudes one 
use of the coldframe is to harden off plants which have been forced 
in the hotbed. Another use is to protect early spring crops which 
mature in short time, such as lettuce, radish, spinach, carrots, and 
others. As these plants are hardy and can endure some frost the 




Fig. 60. — Cabbage and cauliflower plants may be grown in coldframes in winter for early 
spring setting. (Kentucky Station.) 

frame merely serves as a protection from snow and cold blasting 
wmds which would check the growth somewhat. 

In the northern latitudes, coldframes are usually covered with 
glass so they will catch considerable heat from the sun. 

Extensive Use of Coldframes in Southern States. — Besides 
the uses of coldframes mentioned for northern latitudes, another 
very extensive use is in the growing of rather hardy vegetables 
during the fall and winter season. In the Gulf States the weather 
may be mild enough to grow certain crops almost to maturity out 
of doors in the fall. Only a little protection is needed and the cold- 
frame will serve this purpose. 



MANAGEMENT OF TRANSPLANTED PLANTS 87 

Another use in southern states is the forcing of vegetables in 
spring. (Fig. 60.) Enough heat from the sun may be obtained 
through the glass cover of the coldframe to start such tender crops 
as tomatoes, sweet potatoes, peppers, and eggplant. That is to 
say, in many sections no bottom heat is required for the forcing of 
such plants in time for transplanting to the garden. 

Pits for Flowers and Vegetables. — Many gardeners construct 
pits two feet or more in depth for keeping vegetables over wmter. 
Sometimes these pits are four or five feet deep and are walled up 
with brick, wood, or other material. They may be covered with 
glass over which is placed straw mats, old carpets, or other protec- 
tive material. In favorable weather all the cover is removed except 
the glass and the plants are stimulated by the light and air. They 
are protected from the extreme cold by being below the surface of 
the ground and well housed. 

Some Special Uses of Deep Pits.— As winter approaches, the 
flower gardener may take up a number of choice specimens which 
he desires to keep active through the winter season. Among such 
plants would be violets, or pansies placed in boxes, chrysanthe- 
mums or carnations transplanted to pots or boxes, and many others. 
House plants which may be desired for later use in propagating new 
flowering crops may be stored throughout the winter in such pits. 
For example, this might be an ideal place for storing old geranium 
plants from which cuttings are to be made later. 

The vegetable gardener often uses deep pits of this kind for 
storing and perhaps blanching crates of celery transplanted into 
shallow soil in crates or old orange boxes. Even in the northern 
states, flats of growing head lettuce and other crops may be finished 
ill deep pits provided they are located in sunny exposures. 

Deep pits are sometimes used for the first starting of bulbs, such 
as Dutch hyacinths, and others which do not require much heat. 
The bulbs are placed in pots of wet sand or soil and covered in the 
bottoms of these pits. This will save cellar room which might 
otherwise be used for this purpose. 

Management of Transplanted Plants. — The plan for shifting 
and final transplanting to the open garden of vegetables is often 
a puzzle to the beginner. The number of shiftings in the beds of 
the different kinds of plants is shown in the accompanying table. 
The dates are those published by the Illinois Station (Circular 2 16) 
for Central Illinois, and allowance must be made for localities 
farther north or south. 



88 



HOTBEDS, COLDFRAMES, AND FLOWER PITS 



Directions for Growing Transplanted Plants 



Crop 



Onions 

Beets . . . ^ 

Head lettuce .... 
Early cabbage . . . 
Early cauliflower 

Kohl-rabi 

Tomatoes 

Peppers 

Eggplants 

Celery 

Summer cabbage 
Sweet potatoes. . . 

Muskmelons 

Cucumbers 

Late cabbage . . . . 
Endive 



Dates of sowing 



Feb. 1 

Feb. 20-Mar. 1 



" 20- 

" 20- 

" 20- 

" 20- 

March 1 

1 

" 15 

" L5 

" 15 

April 20 

" 20 

" 20 

" 20 

" 15 



No. of 
shifts 



Distances in fiats or 
beds, or size of pots 



Not shifted 
Not shifted 
23^" pots 
2" in flats 
2" in flats 
2" in flats 
2" & 4" 
2" & 4" 
2" & 4" in pots 
2" in flats 
2" in flats 
Not shifted 
Not shifted 
Not shifted 
Not shifted 
Not shifted 



Dates for 
transplanting 
to tiie open 



April 10 

" 10 

" 10 

" 10 

" 10 

" 10 

May 15 

" 15 

June 1 

" 15 

May 1 

June 1 

May 15 

" 15 

June 15 

Aug. 15 



EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Types of Beds and Pits. — -Study the different types and sizes of hotbeds, 
coldframes, and deep vegetable and flower pits in your region. What cover- 
ings are used? Note the advantages of the various ones. Also study the spec- 
ial uses made of them by gardeners. 

2. Construction. — ^Make a hotbed and a coldframe and run them for a 
season. Grow such plants as may pay best in your locality. Record all cost 
of material, labor, and seeds. Also record value of products and thus deter- 
mine the probable profit through a series of years. 

3. Pits. — Conduct a project in a way similar to that suggested in No. 2, 
in the construction and use of a vegetable and flower pit, or several of them. 

4. A contest between students may be started in connection with Nos. 2 
and 3. Let history or story of the work count 20 per cent, records 20 per 
cent, methods 25 per cent, and financial results 35 per cent. 



QUESTIONS 

1. What are the chief purposes of hotbeds? 

2. Describe the making of wooden frames for hotbeds. 

3. What are some of the ways of providing glass and sash for hotbeds? 

4. Explain the two ways by which a manure hotbed is heated. 

5. Give directions for the ventilation of hotbeds. 

6. Give cautions regarding watering. 

7. Compare coldframes with hotbeds. 

8. Enumerate the uses of coldframes. 

9. Describe a good flower pit. 

10. What are the chief uses of deep winter pits? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 460, Frames as a Factor m 
Truck Gardening; 1044, City Home Garden. 



CHAPTER IX 

TENDER AND HARDY VEGETABLES 

The students of gardening often find much difficulty in decid- 
ing what plants may be best grown at the different seasons. A 
classification of garden crops, showing which ones can endure frost 
in the spring or autumn, which can endure summer heat, etc., will 
be of great help to young gardeners. 




Fig. 61. — Tomatoes belong to the very tender group. Varieties will mature their crops 
quickly and the crop has a wide range of climate. 

Warm Season Crops, Usually Transplanted. — Those crops 
which we start early indoors, or in protected places because they 
are easily injured b}^ frost are (1) tomatoes, (Fig. 61) (2) egg- 
plant, (3) sweet and hot peppers, (Fig. 62), (4) sweet potatoes. 
These require transplanting. In our temperate zone the season is 
too short to grow them after hot weather comes unless they be 
started much earlier than this. 

89 



90 



TENDER AND HARDY VEGETABLES 



Warm Season Crops, Not Transplanted. — The following hot 
weather crops are usually not transplanted from hotbeds or cold- 
frames. They are usually planted in the open garden when summer 
weather comes. (1) Pop corn, sweet corn and field corn; (2) beans 
of all kinds including limas, snap beans, green and dry shell beans, 
also soybeans and cowpeas; (3) the vine crops of the melon group, 
including watiT-nielons and citrons, cantaloupes and other musk 

„. — — - - -, melons, squashes and 

pumpkuis, cucumbers 
.; and gherkins; (4) okra 

or gumbo. 

In northern states it 
is more or less common 
practice to start canta- 
loupes in individual 
boxes in hotbeds or cold- 
frames, during the spring 
season. They are thus 
forced somewhat earlier 
and are of good size 
when set m the summer 
garden. 

Early Spring Crops, 
UsuallyTransplanted. — 
There are four crops 
that are started in early 
spring and should ma- 
ture before the summer 
heat becomes intense. (1) Early cabbage (Fig. 63), (2) head 
lettuce, (3) Cos lettuce or romaine, and (4) early cauliflower. 

These do not endure summer heat well and will not head up 
well nor be crisp if dry summer heat strikes them for a long 
period. 

They are best started in protected beds as in window boxes, 
then transplanted to coldframes for a short period and are later 
transplanted to the open garden in very early spring. 
They endure the late spring frosts. 

Cool Autumn Crops, Usually Transplanted. — Several crops of 
the cabbage and celery groups are best suited to make their main 
growth in the late autumn weather. They may be started in beds 
where there is cool shade and where they may be easily watered. 




Fig. G2. — Sweet peppers represent the tender vege- 
tables. They are productive, easily grown, and have 
few enemies. 



THE ONION GROUP 91 

In middle or late summer thc}' are transplanted to the open garden 
during favorable weather, when the soil is very moist. 

They will endure a considerable amount of autumn frost and 
may remam out until the ground begins freezing. 

Included in these groups are: (1) celery, (2) celeriac or turnip- 
rooted celery, (3) late cabbage, (4) Brussels sprouts, (5) broccoli, 

(6) late cauliflower. In the southern states late head lettuce may 
be treated in like manner. 

Spring Greens that Endure Summer Heat. — A number of 
salad plants and greens may be started in very early spring and yet 
will endure summer heat fairly well. (1) Endive, (2) parsley, (3) 
upland cress, (4) Swiss chard, (5) borecole or kale, (6) collards, 

(7) New Zealand spinach, (8) dandelions. 



Fig. 63. — A flat of young early cabbage plants one week after transplanting. (Illinois 

Station.) 

Root Crops and Tubers. — These are of three classes: (1) Those 
which can be grown in a very short time in early spring, as radish 
and white turnip. Kohl-rabi and rutabaga may also be considered 
m this group, but they will extend more into the summer which 
they endure rather poorly. 

(2) Those that endure spring cold and summer heat very well, 
as beets, sugar beets, mangels, carrots, Irish potatoes, and Jeru- 
salem artichokes. 

(3) Those that endure spring cold, summer heat, and also 
stand the winter freezmg of the mature crop, as salsify, parsnip, 
and horse-radish. 

The onion group will stand the spring frosts and also the sum- 
mer heat. This group mcludes true onions, garlic, leeks, and shal- 



92 TENDER AND HARDY VEGETABLES 

lots. In regions having moderate winter weather a few of these 
can withstand the winter freezes. Shallots are often grown as 
winter crops. 

Perennial Crops. — These are required to withstand the cold 
of spring and winter and also the heat of summer. The common 
garden perennials are rhubarb and asparagus. Others less com- 
mon are globe artichoke and sea-kale. In very cold climates they 
are mulched in winter to prevent heaving and injury of the crowns. 

Short Season Spring Greens. — Leaf Lettuce, corn salad, 
garden cress, spinach, mustard, and turnip greens will do best in 
early spring. They will mature their leaf crops for the table before 
summer heat is on. In the southern states nearly all of these may 
be started in late autumn and will withstand some winter freezing, 
particularly if mulched a little with straw or waste materials. 
Mustard and turnip crops for greens are most commonly grown 
by this plan. 

Early Peas are best grown in very early spring. They endure 
frosts well and should mature their crop before hot weather. In 
southern states they may also be grown as a late fall crop if there 
is enough rainfall. 

Planting Table. — The accompanying planting table will serve 
as a rough guide in planning and planting the home garden. Ex- 
perience is a better guide. In the hardiness column, T means 
tender, killed by frost; VT, injured by cool weather; H, hardy, 
stands frost; VH, stands freezing of the soil. The table is largely 
adapted from Cornell Extension Bulletin 14. 

SURVEYS AND EXERCISES 

1. Early Spring Crops. — What vegetables of this group are most grown in 
your community? To get this information make up a list of all hardy spring 
crops and have them checked over by each family indicating the amount grown 
in each case. 

2. Warm Season Crops. — A similar survey should be made for warm 
season crops. 

3. Cool season crops that endure summer heat should be completely Usted 
and a similar survey made. 

4. Transplanting plants is a good garden or greenhouse exercise. Use as 
many kinds as possible of those listed in this chapter. A number of exer- 
cises of this character will be profitable practice. Use "flats' ' if desired. Have 
good garden soil in each and water the plants well before and after trans- 
planting. 

5. Making flats is another good exercise for early spring or any other sea- 
son. Use boxes from shoe stores or grocery stores. Cut them down or use the 
lumber to be made over into shallow boxes of convenient size to handle (Fig. 
64.) Four inches is a good inside depth. Nail them well but leave some drain- 
age cracks in the bottom of each. Also make transplanting boards and dibbers. 



PLANTING TABLE FOR A HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 93 



Plunting Table for a Home Vegetable Garden 



Beet 

Carrot 

Parsnip 

Radish 

Salsify 

Turnip 

Potato 

Onion, green. . 
Onion, mature. 
Cabbage, early 
Cabbage, late . 
Cauliflower. . . . 

Spinach 

Lettuce, leaf . . 
Lettuce, head . 

Celery 

Beans 

Peas 

Tomato 

Eggplant 

Pepper 

Cucumber. . . . 
Watermelon. . . 
Muskmelon. . . 
Squash, early. . 
Squash, late. . . 
Sweet corn .... 



Hardi- 
ness 



H 

H 
VH 

H 
VH 

H 

T 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 
H-VH 

H 

H 

H 

T 

H 

T 

VT 
VT 

T 

VT 
VT 

T 

T 

T 



Time 

to first 

maturity 

(days) 



40'- 90 
60 -100 

120-150 
25- 40 

120-150 
30- 90 
80 -140 
25- 40 
1005-140 
60 -HO-' 
90 -130' 
70 -100' 
30- 60 
30'- 70 
40'- 90 
70 -100' 
60- SO 
50- 70 
60- 90' 
90 -1405 
90 -1205 
65 - 80 
90-110 
90-110 
65 - 80 
70 -100 
70 -100 



Distance 
beuween 
plants 
(inches) 



2- 4 

2- 4 
3-4 
1 - 2 
2-3 
2-4 

14-18 

1 - 2 

2-4 

12-18 

18-24 

15-24 

2-4 

3- S 
6 -15 
4-6 
2-5 

Vi- 1 
182-48 
24 -30 
18-30 
123-36^ 
481-72^ 
123-48' 
30 -48 
183-72* 
18<-364 



Distance 

between 

rows 

(inches) 



12-30 
12-30 
18-36 

6-15 
18-36 
12-30 
30-36 

8-15 
15-30 
21-.36 
30-36 
21-30 
12-30 
10-15 
10-15 
24-48^ 
24-36 
24-36 
30-48 
21-36 
24-36 
42-60 
60-84 
48-60 
42-60 
60-84 
30-42 



Number 
of seeds 
to sow 
per foot 



20-40 
30-60 
20-40 
30-60 
20-40 
30-60 
1 piece 
S-15 
20-40 



20-40 
' or 25 
5 or 20 

10-20 
18-30 



43-104 
43- 10' 

43-104 

43-101 
43-10* 

4-8* 



Amount of 

seed to buy 

for 100 feet 

of row 



ounce. . . 
^2 ounce. . 

ounce. 

ounce. 

ounce. 
4 ounce 

peck . . 
-2 quarts 
-2 ounce . 

packet. 

packet. 

packet. 

ounce. . 
>i' ounce. 
K ounce . 

packet. 
-2 pints. 
-2 pints. 

packet. 

packet. 

packet. 
2 ounce . 
J/2 ounce . 
i ounce . 
'2 cunce. 
J4-I ounce 
!4 pint 



Depth 
to plant 
(inches) 



y2-i 

K-1 

H-1 
M-1 
H-1 

Vi-l 

3-4 
1 

H-i 

K-J/28 
M-1 

1-2 
1-2 



y2-i 
H-i 

3^-1 

1-2 



'■ For earth blanching. 
* Hills of 3 or 4 plants. 



- For single stem training, 
s From transplants. 



3 For single plants. 
* In seedbed. 




Fig. 64. — Young people transplanting plants into flats made by themselves. 



94 TENDER AND HARDY VEGETABLE? 

Discussions and Debates. — Resolved that the home garden, when hiid out 
for horse cultivation, paj's better than the same area in any field crop, — labor 
and expense considered. 

Do winter garden crops pay as well as summer garden crops? Give 
reasons. 

Give argimients for perennial garden crops. Contrast these with annual 
crops. 

Does it pay to grow the transplanted crops as well as it does the others? 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give a list of warm season crops that are usually transplanted. 

2. List the warm season crops that are not transplanted. 

3. What are the early spring crops usually transplanted? 

4. What cool autumn crops are usually transplanted? 

5. What spring greens endure summer heat? 

G. Give a classification of root crops and tubers with reference to season and 
time of maturity. 

7. What can you say of the hardiness of the onion group? What are included 

here? 

8. Name four perennial garden crops. 

9. Give a list of early spring greens and salad crops that will produce a crop 

before the heat of summer. 
10. What is the best season for garden peas? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins ; 204, Cultivation of Mush rooms 
218, The School Garden ; 232, Okra ; 254, Cucumbers ; 289, lioans ; 3.54, Onion 
Culture ; 434, Onion Seeds and Sets ; 553, 554, Popcorn ; 042, Tomato Grow- 
ing in South ; 934, Home Gardenine in South ; 937, Farm Garden in North ; 
1044, City Home Garden. 



CHAPTER X 
COOL SEASON VEGETABLES OF EARLY SPRING AND FALL 

The gardener can easily adapt to his own special needs, simple 
directions for growing the special crops. Soils differ considerably 
in their character, and variations in the different methods of prep- 
paring the seed bed are necessary. Depth of planting varies accord- 
ing to the soil moisture. Seeds may be planted deeper in dry soils, 
and shallower in very moist soils. The depth of planting also varies 
with the proportion of sand in the soil. Deeper planting is allow- 
able in very sandy soils. If the depth is too great in clay soils the 
sprouts may not push through the soil. The number of plantings 
is also influenced by the character of the soil, the tune of year, the 
frequency of rain and other factors. 

Plants of this group do not thrive well in very warm weather. 
They grow best in early spring and cool fall weather. 

Radishes. — Any good garden soil is suitable for radishes. The 
depth of soil may be less than in the case of other root crops. They 
mature quickly and must be tender and crisp to be relished. Many 
gardeners plant radish seeds with other seeds so that the young 
plants will show the row quickly, and thus allow earlier cultiva- 
tion. The radishes are later pulled out from among the other 
plants and used on the table. The best crops of radishes may be 
growTi if they are in rich soil with plenty of manure, and are sup- 
plied with an abundance of moisture. The crop is very hardy, 
and should be planted as early in the spring as the soil can be 
worked. A succession of plantings may be made about ten days 
or two weeks apart. Thinning is not necessary, except as the 
largest roots reach edible size they may be pulled to make room 
for others. 

Fall crops of radishes are as much relished as the spring crops. 
They thrive in the long cool season of the autumn. The earliest 
fall sowings may be made in August, and the latest sowings may 
continue to grow until time for the ground to begin freezing. At 
this time of year weeds are less troublesome, and the seeds need 
not.be sown in drills, but may be sown broadcast on a well prepared 
soil and covered with the rake. A pound of seed will bow one- 
tenth of an acre. In drill rows allow an ounce of seed to fifty feet. 

95 



96 COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 

Lettuce.^ — Leaf lettuce is much easier to grow than is head 
lettuce. Both require very rich garden soil; it should be moist and 
loose. The edible qualities of lettuce depend upon its being very 
crisp and tender; rapid growth is therefore necessary. Sow head 
lettuce in flats in the window or hotbed. Transplant the little 
seedlings once or twice. Several plantings may be made later, 
particularly in cool climates. The crop does well in partially 
shaded places, provided enough moisture is supplied. Head let- 
tuce does not endure as much summer heat as many other garden 
crops. Leaf lettuce will also become tough and send up seed stalks 
when the weather becomes hot and the soil is dry. The late sum- 
mer or fall crop may be stored by sowing seeds in beds or a pro- 
tected place. These may be transplanted about the first of Sep- 
tember and mature a nice crop of heads before freezing weather. 
If winter comes on too soon, cover the plants with coarse litter 
and let them continue their growth during warm spells which 
may follow. 

In the extreme southern states lettuce plants may be cov- 
ered and left out all winter; in the northern states they can be 
transplanted into coldframes under glass or cloth and continue to 
grow and make heads for winter use. 

Romaine. — A type of lettuce Icnown as Romaine, or Cos let- 
tuce, is becoming more popular in America. It is more erect than 
common leaf lettuce, and the leaves are rather firm, as in head 
lettuce. Unlike the other forms of lettuce, it requires blanching 
for the best flavor. In the southern states Cos lettuce is becoming 
more popular because it endures more summer heat than other 
types of lettuce. 

English Garden Peas. — There are three main types of garden 
peas, according to the height of growth. The dwarf varieties are 
the earliest and require no staking; the medium and tall varieties 
require supports of some kind. As the expense of staking is less 
in the home garden than in large commercial plantations the tall 
varieties are more used. Peas may also be classified according to 
the character of seed produced, being smooth or wrinkled. The 
wrinkled varieties are sweeter in flavor and are considered of much 
better quality, but the smooth peas are hardier, and are planted 
in large fields for canning purposes. 

Peas do not withstand summer heat. They must be grown in 
the cool part of the year. They endure winter cold fairly well. 
If sown upon the earliest approach of spring they will endure con- 



MUSTARD 97 

siderable freezing of the ground and severe frosts. Successions of 
plantings are seldom made in the southern states because of the 
rapid approach of hot weather. In northern latitudes several 
plantings may be made. It pays to soak the seeds before planting, 
but too much soaking may be harmful, as the seeds may split open 
and be destroyed. The rows should be far enough apart to allow 
of cultivation, and the distance will vary according to the height 
of the varieties. They may be planted in double drills and a sup- 
port placed between these drills. Two bushels of seed will plant 
an acre. The depth of planting may be one to two inches. In 
the region of large canneries grain drills are used for planting 
the seeds. 

When the crop is ready for harvest it is mowed with a hay 
mowing machine and raked as hay. The vines are not allowed to 
cure on the ground, but are hauled immediately to the threshing 
machines at the canneries. The vines and other waste may be put 
into silos as feed for cattle. The vines from the home garden make 
good forage for stock. 

Spinach. — This plant belongs to the beet family, and the seeds 
resemble garden beet seed. The plants are very hardy, and will 
endure severe spring frosts. When hot weather comes seed stems 
are sent up and the crop is lost. Rich garden soil is preferred. The 
crop is grown exclusively for greens, for which it is one of the mild- 
est flavored plants. The crop may be matured in six or eight 
weeks from the time of planting. In the southern states it is fre- 
quently grown as a late fall crop. With a little protection of straw 
or other litter it may stand the severe winter weather and make 
an early sprmg growth for the table or the market. It is not, how- 
ever, quite as hardy as mustard and turnips grown for the same 
purpose. The spinach crop is drilled in rows twelve to eighteen 
inches apart and may be tilled with a wheel hoe or garden rake to 
prevent the crusting of the ground. The fall crop may be sown 
broadcast, as there is less trouble from weeds. Allow one ounce 
of seed to one hundred feet of drill for spring planting. (See New 
Zealand spinach in Chapter XI). 

Mustard. — When this crop is grown for greens it may be planted 
in early spring or in the fall , in the northern states. In the southern 
states it is commonly sown broadcast in the fall and may withstand 
the winter and produce an early cutting of greens in February, 
March and April. It is more commonly sown broadcast than in 
rows. One ounce of seed will sow about one-fifth of an acre. There 
7 



98 COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 

are two main types known as the white and the black mustard. 
White mustard has dark green, smooth leaves and is preferable 
to the black mustard, which is strong in flavor. 

Com salad is drilled in close rows in very early spring. The 
clusters of leaves are ready to use in forty to fifty days. The uses 
and treatment are like those for garden cress. A fall planting may 
be made just m time to harvest before the ground freezes. Or in 
regions of mild winters the leaves may be mulched with leaves or 
straw and the salad used during winter or early spring. 

Garden Cress has a burning flavor and is likened to pepper 
grass. The seeds are drilled in very early spring, in rows just far 
enough apart to allow the rake or wheel hoe to pass between. The 
plants may be thinned by pulling out some for use. The crop is 
produced very quickly, and is used for garnish or flavoring sand- 
wiches and salads. The plants run to seed if the weather becomes 
warm before the crop is used. 

Cabbage. — In both the northern and the southern states this 
crop is grown in two ways. (1) An early variety planted in early 
spring, maturing before the hot, dry weather of mid-summer, (2) 
the later crop, or main crop, planted by mid-summer or earlier and 
maturing in late fall. Both crops endure frost and thrive best in 
cool weather. The fall crop is preferred for use for making sauer 
kraut and also for storage through the winter. 

Early Jersey Wakefield (Fig. 65), Charleston Wakefield and 
Succession are good varieties for early spring planting. The heads 
are smaller and are formed earlier than in the case of later varieties. 

Late Flat Dutch and Drum Head are good main season or late 
varieties (Fig. 66). The heads are large and firm and will keep well 
in storage if buried in trenches or if stored in frost proof cellars. 

Two forms of plantmg are practiced. One is to sow the seeds 
in beds and pull the plants after they are a few inches high. These 
are then set in the open garden where they are to grow. 

The other plan is practiced for the late crop in some sections. 
The seeds are dropped in hills about two feet apart in rows three 
feet apart. A little powdered lime is dropped in each place to 
indicate the location so that cultivation may be begun immediately 
after planting, as weeds are very bad at that time of year. 

Fertilizer should be applied abundantly to the cabbage crop. 
It is almost impossible to overfeed the plants. Lime is very help- 
ful, particularly if the crop is grown in rich bottom land or bog 
land. 



TURNIPS 



99 



The late crop of cabbage may follow a crop of early potatoes or 
some other early garden crop. Sometimes cabbage plants are set 
between the rows of potatoes, in gardens, and the digging of the 
potatoes can be done without injuring the cabbage plants. 

As soon as heads are formed and have become somewhat solid 
they may be used for cooking or for salad. If the heads tend to burst 
in the garden they should be bent over or partially pulled to check 
the growth. They ma}^ remain in this condition in the garden for 
some time without injury. 

Cabbage should not be grown on the same ground for several 
years in succession. The disease called "yellows" may soon infest 



Fig. 65. 



Fig. 66. 




Fig. 65. — rypical fonn of the earliest varieties of cabbage. — Early Jersey Wakefield. (Ohio 

Station.) 
Fig. 66. — Allhead is a rather early variety but has the broad, flat form of later varieties. 

(Ohio Station.) 

the soil where continuous cropping is practiced. If the disease is 
present resistant strains should be used if possible. (Fig. 67.) 

Turnips. — This crop is extremely hardy, and in the southern 
states will grow throughout the winter. In all the states the crop may 
be sown in very early spring in a well pulverized soil. The turnips 
are ready for the table in sixty to ninety days from seeding time, 
and the greens from the tops may be used much sooner than this. 

There are two main types of turnips in common use, the white 
turnip and rutabaga. The latter has a yellowish flesh. Good 
varieties of white turnips are Purple Top, White Flat Dutch and 
White Globe. 



100 



COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 



Turnips prefer cool weather, and may be grown as an early- 
spring crop or as a fall crop. The fall planting may be protected 
from extreme cold weather by a covering of straw or other litter. 
Two plans of sowing the crop are in use. Drill rows are more com- 
monly planted with the rutabaga, but any turnip may be drilled 
in rows. Clean culture is given between the rows. The second 
plan is to sow the seed broadcast on a well prepared soil. The lat- 
ter plan is more common with the fall crop. 

The use of turnips in the garden should be increased. Those 




Fig. (J7. — Strains of cabbage resistant to yellows, variety Wisconsin Hollander. 

Station.) 



(Wisconsin 



not desired for table use may furnish feed for stock, such as hogs 
and sheep. The turnip roots may be stored in deep pits, in cellars, 
or may be covered with soil in piles in the garden. They should 
not be allowed to freeze, and it is best to have them available for 
use during freezing weather. 

Probably the worst garden enemy of the turnip is the green 
plant louse. The lice attack the leaves of the fall crop much worse 
than they do the spring crop, but in some cases are bad at both 
seasons. As the crop is not expensive the most economical plan is 
to pull the turnips and feed them to hogs or other stock as soon as 



BRUSSELS SPROUTS 101 

the attack is seen. Spraying with kerr £ene emulsion on the under 
side of the leaves will destroy the lice to some extent, but this is a 
very difficult task because the leaves lie on the soil. 

Cauliflower. — This plant belongs to the cabbage group and the 
culture methods are similar. The quickly grown cauliflower is 
preferred for table use. Two plantings are therefore desirable, 
one m early spring and the other m late summer and fall. The 
plants may be readily transplanted, and are commonly first grown 
in beds and then transplanted to the open garden. The rows may 
be two or three feet apart and the plants one to two mches apart 
m the row. Good cultivation and careful attention should be 
given the plants from setting time to maturity. When the heads 
have reached a size of tvA^o inches across, the outer leaves should 
be tied up over the heads to protect them against the sun and 
weather and to blanch the heads. If this is not done the heads will 
become bitter and discolored. As the heads become large enough 
for table use they may be harvested, and cabbage plants or o'ther 
crops grown in their place. For market or show the leaves may 
be trimmed as sho\\Ti in figure G8. 

The worst enemy of cauliflower and cabbage is the green cab- 
bage worm, produced by the white cabbage butterfly. Dusting the 
small plants with wood ashes, tobacco dust, road dust or air-slaked 
lime will aid in keeping away this pest. Paris green mixed with 
lime is good. The butterflies prefer to lay their eggs on weeds or 
other plants where dust has not been applied. The use of poison 
m the lime is important where the worms have begun eating. The 
dust is applied while the morning dew is on the plants. 

Kohl-rabi. — This is another plant of the cabbage group. It may 
be compared to a turnip above ground. The solid fleshy head is 
very palatable when cooked in a manner similar to that of cooking 
turnips. As the crop becomes rather old the peeling becomes 
strong and should be removed before cooldng. Even with the young 
heads it is desu'able to remove the peeling. The transplanting, 
cultivation, hai-vesting and storage are similar to those for cabbage. 

Broccoli. — This crop makes its chief growth in cool weather, 
and is commonly grown in autumn for late hai'vest. If grown as a 
spring crop the plants should be started early enough to be trans- 
planted as soon as the soil in the garden can be worked. The plants 
need the same care and management as cabbage and cauliflower. 

Brussels Sprouts. — The young plants look like cabbage plants, 
and belong to the cabbage group. The stalk is supplied with many 



102 COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 

very small heads which are picked off and boiled either as a vege- 
table dish or to accompany meat dishes. The crop matures best in 
late fall weather. The heads do not form during hot summer. The 
seed is sown in the open in mid-summer, and the row is marked 
with a little lime dust as with late crops of cabbage. The plants 
may be readily transplanted, and can be started in beds where they 
are easily watered. As the plants are very tall they are given a lit- 
tle more space between rows, particularly if horse cultivation is to 
be used. Two or three feet should be allowed with one or two feet 




Fig. 68. — Heads of cauliflower with medium trim for show in market. (Cornell Station.) 

between plants in the row. The delicious heads are improved in 
flavor by allowing them to be frosted a few times before harvesting. 

Celery. — This crop thrives best in the cool days of late fall. The 
plants are readily transplanted, but are very slow to develop. The 
seeds are difficult to germinate and should be soaked before pl?,nt- 
ing. In the northern states the plants should be ready to trans- 
plant to the garden by June or earlier, but in southern states trans- 
planting to the open garden may be done as late as August or Sep- 
tember. Set the plants six to eight inches apart in rows about four 
feet apart. Rich black loam is best. An abundance of humus in 
the soil is of great importance. When the transplanted plants 
reach a height of three to five inches they are topped by pinching 
to cause them to become more stocky. They should have frequent 
watering and frequent tillage. 

The stalks only are palatable when they are thick, crisp and 
tender. They should be blanched as winter approaches. This is 
done in several ways. A simple method is to bank up the dirt on 
both sides against the plants, with the top leaves projecting, (Fig, 
69). Another method is to set a piece of agricultural tile four 
inches in diameter around each plant. Another common method 
is to set a board on edge at each side of the row. (Fig. 70.) These 



CELERY 



103 



are held four inches apart with pieces nailed across the top edge. 
The boards are held in place at the bottom by pegs driven into the 
ground. Leaves or other litter may be filled in between the plants 
to help exclude the light. Celery will stand considerable frost and 
may be left in the garden until the ground begins freezing. 




Fig. 09. Celery well lulled up" with soil for blanching. (Ilhnois ^^tatiou.) 

The crop may be stored in a number of different ways. One 
method is to dig the plants and put the roots in four inches of soil 
in the bottom of crates. The plants are packed closely together in 




Fig. 70. — Blanching celery with boards. (Lloyd's Production Vegetable Growing.) 

the crates and the soil is kept watered without wetting the stems. 
The crates are stored in a cool cellar and allowed to continue their 
growth and blanching until used. Another method is to store the 
celery in rather dry sand with the top plumes projecting above the 



104 COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 

sand. A little moisture may be added by setting the bottom of the 
crates in shallow water for a few mmutes. Celery is sometimes 
held in cold storage in shipping crates without any sand or soil. 

The winter crop of celery which reaches northern markets in 
spring is produced in Florida and other southern states. It grows 
throughout the winter m the open garden where the ground does 
not freeze. Good varieties for the home garden are Golden Self 
Blanching and Giant Pascal. 

Celeriac is turnip rooted celery. The seed is planted and started 
much the same way as with celery. The roots are the edible portion. 
These are used for vegetable soups and contain the same medicinal 
qualities as found in the celery plant; these properties make both 
of these crops valuable articles of the diet. They are considered 
nerve tonics. As the stems are not to be used for food, blanching 
is not required. 

EXERCISES, SURVEYS, AND PROJECTS. 

1. Varieties. — Obtain several garden catalogues and study varieties of the 
crops included in this chapter. Determine which varieties are most used in 
your section and why. 

2. New Crops.^What crops of this chapter are not commonly grown in 
your region? Get seeds of these and grow the crops to edible maturity. 

3. Uses of Vegetables. — Get recipe boolis and government bulletins to 
learn new ways of using the different vegetables. If possible let some of these 
dishes be prepared and served at home or at school. 

4. Cultural Methods. — ^Make inquiry regarding cultural methods used 
in your region, for each of these crops. Include rate of seeding, time of plant- 
ing, transplanting, distances between rows, depth, cultivation, and special treat- 
ment. Record these in tabular form and note the variations. Indicate by 
special marks with colored pencil, which you consider best for each crop, con- 
sidering soil, climate, and everything. 

5. Head Lettuce is often difficult to bring to perfection. Discover what 
difficulties are encountered if any. Give the best methods to those who are 
not successful with this crop. Consider the best variety for the region and soil, 
temperature at time of heading, watering, fertility of soil, shade and any other 
vital points. 

6. Garden peas should be tried in the fall. Grow the crop at home and 
report results. 

7. Turnips of several varieties including both the yellow and white, should 
be grown in comparison with each other to determine the rate of growth, qual- 
ties, winter hardiness and other points. 

8. Resistance to freezing may be tested as a home project by growing 
winter radishes, spinach, mustard, corn salad, garden cress, cabbage, and 
others of this group. Start them at suitable times in the fall and allow a part 
of each crop to remain in the garden over winter. Protect them with leaves, 
straw, or other light litter. Do not smother them too much if the winter is mild. 

9. Celery may be grown as a special home project to make trials of diff- 
erent methods of setting, culture, blanching, storing, etc. 

10. Sauer kraut may be made as a home project. Test its keeping quah- 



QUESTIONS 105 

ties. Record amount and value of cabbage and salt used, time for making and 
care given while fermenting, and value of product in winter. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What types of radishes are most grown in your section? Which variety 

is most popular? 

2. Is leaf lettuce or head lettuce better suited to your section? 

3. What difficulty is encountered in growing head lettuce during warm 

weather? 

4. What advantage has Cos lettuce over other forms? 

5. Describe good methods of training pole beans. 

6. Which are usually earlier, the pole or dwarf varieties of peas? 

7. Why is spinach more popular m the market than greens of the mustard 

and turnip group? 

8. Describe management of the mustard, and turnip crop to supply greens in 

the late fall and early spring. 

9. What are the special advantages of growing late cabbage in preference to 

early cabbage in the home garden? 

10. Which of these would bring the best price in your market? 

11. Compare white turnips with rutabagas in color of flesh, time of growth, 

keeping quahties, and market value. 

12. Give directions for growing and blanching cauhflower. 

13. What can you say of the value and use of kohl-rabi? 

14. Are broccoli and Brussels sprouts grown by any gardeners in your section? 

What use is made of the crops? 

15. At what season would you transplant celery plants to the garden, in your 

region? 

16. Give directions for care, management, blanching, and storing of celery. 

17. What use is made of celeriac? 

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 590, Field Pea; 766,The Common 
Cabbage Worm; 925, Cabbage Diseases; 934, 937, Home Gardening; 1061, 
Harlequin Cabbage Bug; 1133 Cabbage for Hogs; 1189, Shipping Spinach; 
Productive Vegetable Gardening, Lloyd, J. B. Lippincott Company; School 
and Home Gardening, Davis, J. B. Lippincott Company. 



CHAPTER XI 

COOL SEASON VEGETABLES THAT ENDURE SUMMER 

HEAT. 

The crops included in this group will thrive best in cool weather 
of spring and fall. They are all hardy and will stand considerable 
frost of either spring or fall. Some will even live through the 
winter. The special advantage which members of this group have 
over the crops included in Chapter X, is their ability to withstand 
the heat of mid-summer. Most of them will grow reasonably well 
thi'oughout the summer if enough moisture is provided. 

Onions. — As already suggested, the onion group includes the 
true onions, leeks, garlic, challots and chives. The main crop of 
onions to be harvested in late summer or fall and to be stored as 
dry onions over winter is grown from seed sown in early spring in 
very rich black loam as free from weeds as possible. If the soil is 
somewhat sandy and well drained it will warm up earlier and the 
seed will sprout better. An abundance of organic matter in the 
soil aids drainage, as well as helps preserve the moisture during the 
dry season. If horse tillage is to be used during the growing season 
the rows are to be drilled about eighteen to twenty inches apart. 
If wheel hoes (Fig. 72) are to be used instead of horses, a little less 
space is required. The seed is drilled thick enough to make the 
plants stand about two inches apart in the row (Fig. 71), but 
usually thinning is required. If a little radish or turnip seed is 
planted at the same time the rows will be more quickly seen and 
cultivation may begin before the weeds become so thick as to 
smother the crop. Thorough cultivation to preserve moisture and 
stimulate growth is required. A commercial fertilizer containing 
considerable potash and phosphoric acid with a small percentage 
of nitrogen is commonly used. This can be applied soon after the 
crop is up and cultivated into the soil with a wheel ho^e or garden 
rake. Continuous rapid growth is desired. This is attained by 
frequent cultivation (Fig. 72.) When the growing season is about 
over they should not be cultivated. A second growth should not 
be allowed by late cultivation or by late rains. The bulbs may be 
pulled and dried to prevent the second growth. Pulling is usually 
done when the tops begin to die. If the weather is dry and hot the 
106 



ONIONS 



107 



onions may be left exposed to the sun for several days (Fig. 73). 
They are usually gathered in shallow boxes or open crates, and 
should be handled very carefully. The shallow crates may be 
piled one upon another in the wagon to avoid the onions being 
bruised. They should be stored in a dry place. As cold weather 
approaches they may be placed in a cool but dry cellar. At no 
time should they be piled up. If dry air can get to them readily 
they will keep for many months. 

There are three main types of seed onions, and a number of 
varieties of each type (Fig. 74). A popular variety of each type 




Fig. 71. — When large weeds are pulled from the onion patch they may be put in weed sacks 
and carried from the field. (Michigan Station ) 

is here given. (1) Yellow Globe Danvers, (2) Red Wethersfield, 
(3) Southport White Globe. The Bermuda type of onion is grown 
somewhat in the Gulf States. It is milder than any of the other 
onions, and is popular on the market. Three varieties are Red 
Bermuda, White Bermuda and Crystal Wax. 

Green onions such as are commonly sold in bunches in the 
markets are easily produced in one of two ways. 

1. Onion sets may be planted an inch apart in rows about one 
foot apart. This may be done in very early spring, or if shallot 
bulbs are used in the southern states the sets may be started in the 
fall. The first growth from the onion sets may be eaten within a 
few weeks. 



108 



COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 



2. In the southern states seed of silver skin onions or some other 
hardy variety, may be sown in September or later and will survive 
the winter with little or no protection. Along the Great Lakes and 
the Atlantic and Pacific coasts they may also be grown during the 
winter, particularly if a little mulch of clean straw is provided. 
The crop requires less cultivation than the main crop of onions. 

There is little trouble from 
weeds at this season, and the 
soil usually contains plenty of 
moisture. Green onions should 
be ready for pulling early the 
next spring. 

Garlic. — The advent of our 
foreign population particularly 
from the Mediterranean region 
has caused this crop to be- 
come more popular in America. 
Garlic has a very strong flavor 
and odor which has tended to 
restrict its popularity. It may 
be used for flavoring salad 
dishes or for adding flavor to 
meat and vegetable soups. 
The crop is easily grown from 
small bulbs or sets and need 
not to be grown from seeds. 
The crop is easily stored if 
handled carefully and kept in 
a dry place. 

Leeks. — Soups are some- 
times flavored with leeks in- 
stead of onions. The crop of 
so - called ' ' wild - onions' ' so 
common in many parts of 
America, belongs to the leek 
group. The soil requirements are similar to those for the true 
onion. Growers sometimes prefer to blanch the necks by hilling 
up the rows on each side during the last cultivation. 

Shallot. — The bulbs are formed in clusters which are easily 
broken apart and planted separately. This is the best means of 
propagation of the crop instead of by seeds. As the shallots are 




Fig. 72.— Ten year old girl with double 
wheel hoe. Cultivating onions in the home 
garden. (Bateman Mfg. Co.) 



SWISS CHARD 



109 



very hardy they are commonly planted in September in the south- . 
ern states. They will pi-oduce a good growth and may remain in 
the garden all winter without injury. This gives a crop ready for 
use durmg the open winter or early spring. In northern latitudes 
the bulbs are planted in very early spring and will develop a crop 
similar to green onions from onion sets in a few weeks after planting. 
Chives. — This crop grows in dense tufts forming clusters re- 
semblmg a grass sod. The green growth is cut and used for flavor- 




Fia. 73. — Well matured onions curing in wind rows before topping. (.Michigan Station.) 

ing and is followed by renewed growth. The plant is so easily 
propagated by division of the mass of roots that growers find it 
rather a serious pest in the garden. 

Swiss Chard. — This plant belongs to the beet family and has 
a leaf somewhat resembling the sugar beet, but with long fleshy 
leaf stems. These stems may be cooked and served with cream 
dressing in a manner similar to serving asparagus. The leaves 
themselves are used as greens, and are as mild as spinach for this 
purpose. There is no fleshy root as in the true beet. 



110 COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 

The seeds are sown in rows about fifteen or twenty inches apart 
to allow of tillage between the rows, with the plants six to twelve 
inches apart in the rows. This planting should be done as early 
in the spring as the ground can be prepared. The crop endures hot 
weather well and will also endure both late spring and early fall 
frosts. As the leaves become large enough they may be pulled off, 
the outer ones being used and the central ones allowed to continue 
their growth. In this way the same plants will contmue to supply 
a crop thi'oughout the entire season. If given thorough tillage and 
enough moisture and conditions are favorable, the crop will not 
become too fibrous for table use. An immense yield may be ob- 




FlG. 74. — Tjpes of globe onions. Michigan ideal on left. Longer form on right, preferred 
in many markets. (Michigan Station.) 

tained from a very few plants. If thinning is required the plants 
pulled out may be used for greens. 

This crop is becoming more popular for home use in America 
because it is one of the few garden crops which will endure both 
extreme cold and summer heat. As the plants are easily trans- 
planted the seed may be sown in hotbeds to get an early start. 
Transplanting would then take place in very early spring. 

Collards may be called non-heading cabbage. Like other 
members of the cabbage group they are able to withstand a great 
deal of frost in spring and fall. They will stand summer heat bet- 
ter because they do not form heads. The tender leaves forming a 
rosette at the top of the tall stem are especially fine for salad 
after the first fall frosts. 



UPLAND CRESS 111 

The plants may be started from seeds sown in beds and later 
transplanted to the garden rows. Set them one foot apart in rows 
about two feet apart. If the seed is drilled in the garden rows the 
plants will require thinning. One-half inch of soil is enough over 
the seeds. An ounce of seed should produce about three thousand 
plants. Give the growing crop clean culture all the season. Take 
off the leaves near the top for use, and new leaves will continue to 
form if the top bud is not destroyed. 

New Zealand Spinach. — This crop endures hot weather. In- 
stead of sending up flower stems it will continue to grow in hot 
weather; watering, however, adds much to its qualities. If the 
new growth is harvested by cutting or breaking above the 
ground the same plants may continue to yield during the entire 
season. The seed should be sown in rows far enough apart to 
allow of some form of cultivation. The plants should be thinned 
to several inches or one foot apart if they are to be used for con- 
tinuous cropping and growth through the season. (See spinach 
in Chapter X.) 

Parsley is used for garnishing meat and salad dishes and for 
seasoning soups. It may be grown in the open garden all through 
the spring, summer and fall and in a window box during the winter. 
The seeds may be sown in window boxes or in hotbeds or cold- 
frames. The plants may be readily transplanted, and as they will 
stand considerable frost they may be set in the open garden in 
early spring. Sometimes the plants are taken from the garden in 
the fall and transplanted to boxes for storage in vegetable pits or 
for continued growth in doors. For the winter house plants it is 
better to sow the seeds in a bed in August or September, watering 
them well and taking them up before the ground freezes. By pick- 
ing only a few leaves they will thrive throughout the season. A 
few plants in the window during the winter will supply a family. 
Dried leaves from the summer growth may be preserved for flavor- 
ing soups during the winter. 

Upland Cress. — This crop is not extensively grown, probably 
because its merits are not well known. Leaves may be gathered 
from the growing crop and the plants will continue to form new 
leaves throughout the season. It is one of the crops which will 
endure summer heat as well as extreme cold in spring and fall. It 
is used very much the same way as water cress, that is for salads 
and for garnish. The seed may be sown in the open garden in very 
early spring. The drill rows may be about eighteen to twenty 



112 COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 

inches apart. In the southern states a fall crop may be started 
about the middle of August or even later. 

Kale. — -This is also called borecole and belongs to the cabbage 
group, but produces no heads. It is extremely hardy, and will 
endure both frost and summer heat. In the southern states it will 
continue its growth throughout the winter. 

Good varieties are Curled, Dwarf Siberian and Tall Scotch. 
For the spring crop sow as soon as the soil can be worked. Plant 
the seeds in drill rows or broadcast. A half ounce of seed is enough 
to plant 100 feet of drill. Cover about one-fourth to one-half inch. 
If drill rows are planted allow space for tillage between the rows. 
As soon as the plants are large enough begin thinning and use them 
for greens. The young leaves are most tender. 

For the fall crop the seed may be sown broadcast over a well 
prepared seed bed and covered with a rake. This may be done in 
August or September, or even later in the southern states. Kale is 
not subject to common garden enemies, and the crop will grow with 
very little care and attention. 

If plants of the spring crop are left in the rows eight inches apart 
they may continue to yield leaves for greens throughout the season. 
Only a few leaves are picked from each plant at a time and more 
continue to form in the center. 

Endive. — This curly-leaved salad will form dense heads like 
head lettuce. The crop is grown in much the same way as lettuce, 
but the leaves need to be tied up to cause them to blanch, which 
removes the bitter taste. Two or three weeks are necessary for 
this process. Care should be taken that no dew or rain is on the 
leaves at the time of tying, as rot would start. If the leaves are 
left tied too long rot may be started. For home use only a few 
heads are tied at a time. The young plants can be readily trans- 
planted, and if this plan is followed they are set about one foot 
apart in rows eighteen inches or two feet apart. The main crop 
may be harvested in the fall, and a few plants may be transplanted 
into crates containing a little soil. These crates may be stored in 
cellars or deep pits, as in the case of celery. 

Carrots. — ^Good varieties are Half-long Scarlet, Early Scarlet 
Horn, and Chantenay. The seeds of carrots are very small and 
germinate rather slowly. They are usually soaked in water a 
day before planting. They should be covered very shallow, as 
the seedlings are weak and cannot break through the thick crust. 
A few seeds of radish scattered in the row at planting time will 



PARSNIPS 113 

help to break the crust, and will also mark the row more plainly 
so that cultivation may begin early. The soil should be very 
fine and somewhat sandy to prevent baking. The addition of 
humus is very helpful to the crop. The seed bed should be very 
thoroughly prepared and very level. The seed is drilled in rows 
18 mches apart, or double rows may be placed two feet apart. An 
ounce of seed will plant one hundred feet of row. As the carrots 
need thinning the larger specimens may be pulled for table use. 
Careful, close tillage is important at the very start. The crop 
will stand considerable frost, and planting may be done in very 
early spring. The later plants may be left in the garden during 
the fall or until needed on open winter days. Freezing of the 
ground will injure the crowns somewhat, but many of the roots 
will endure this ordeal. The roots may be pulled in the fall 
and piled in heaps covered with sufficient soil to make them easily 
accessible during the whiter season. 

Parsnips. — This is a very hardy crop; indeed it will stand much 
freezing of the ground in the fall and winter. The edible roots 
are made sweeter by some freezing. The seed should be planted in 
the open garden in very early spring. Parsnips do not transplant 
readily. The seed is slow in sprouting and should be soaked before 
planting. Very old seeds should not be used. Scatter in the 
row a few seeds of radish or turnip to help break the crust of the 
ground for the parsnips and also to mark the row before the 
parsnips begin to show. The drill rows may be eighteen to twenty 
inches apart, or double rows may be two or three feet apart if 
horse tillage is to be used. A row of parsnips with a row of salsify a 
few inches apart from it is a good form of double row, as both of 
these crops can be left in the garden until winter. One ounce of 
seed will plant one hundred feet of drill. 

Good varieties are Early Round, Guernsey, Yellow Crown. The- 
plant is a biennial and should not be used after growth begins the 
second year. A poisonous product is apt to form which injured 
some people. The second year's growth may be left in the garden 
to form seeds if desired. Give the crop clean, deep thorough culti- 
vation and keep it growing throughout the whole summer. Thin- 
ning is usually necessary ; this should be done when the plants are 
forming their third and fourth pairs of leaves. Leave the plants at 
least two inches apart in the row. It is best to plant the parsnips 
at one side of the garden where they will not be in the way of the 
summer succession of quick-maturing crops. 



114 COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 

Salsify. — The common name of tliis plant is vegetable oyster, 
because of its flavor. It is commonly- used in vegetable soups, or 
may be served with cream or cream gravy as a side dish. As sug- 
gested under the head of parsnips the salsify may be grown in 
companion rows with parsnips. The seeds are slow in germina- 
tion and should be soaked before plantmg. The use of turnips 
or radishes to help break the crust and mark the row early is 
desired. Thin the plants to at least two inches apart. Clean 
deep cultivation should be given tliroughout the whole season. 
The crop may be used in about 100 days after planting, but may 
be allowed to remain in the ground the remainder of the season 
or until winter or the following spring. The roots may be dug 
at any time when the ground is not frozen. Freezing gives them 
a better flavor. 

Beets. — A rich sandy loam is the best for the red garden beet. 
Any deep, good garden soil will produce the crop well. Two other 
types of beets should be considered under this head: the sugar 
beet, from which a large portion of the sugar of the world is obtained, 
and the mangel wurzel which is used chiefly for livestock. 

Good varieties of the red garden beet are Egyptian, Early 
Eclipse, and Early Blood Turnip. The seed should be drilled in 
the garden in rows early in the spring, twenty inches or more apart. 
If horse tillage is to be used two feet or more should be allowed 
between rows. Two ounces of seed are sufficient to plant 100 feet 
of row. When the plants are forming their second and third pairs 
of leaves they should be thinned to a few inches apart. The plants 
from the thinning may be used for greens; they are as good as 
spinach. 

The sugar beet ana mangel may be drilled a little later than the 
garden beet, and should be thinned to about eight inches apart. 
With all of the beets clean, deep cultivation is best. The garden 
beet should be planted several times to get the most tender roots. 
They suffer more from the summer heat than the other types. 
Frequent watering will help to prevent checJvs in the growth. Sus- 
pended growth causes the roots to become woody and unfit for 
table use. 

Garden beets may be stored by piling them in the open and 
covering well with soil over which is placed corn stalks or other 
litter to prevent the soil from being washed off by rain. Mangels 
and sugar beets may be stored in like manner. Sugar beets may be 
shced and boiled to extract the sugar in early whiter and storage is 



I 



RHUBARB 115 

not necessary. The pulp from the making of sugar may be fed to 
cows or other Hvestock. Storage in deep pits or cellars is better 
suited to northern climates, as these plans make the product more 
accessible during freezmg weather. 

The mangel wurzel is very productive, 20 tons per acre being 
possible mider favorable conditions. The roots are much prized 
by stock feeders as the}^ furnish much mineral matter and succu- 
lence as well as other feed ingredients during the season when 
pasture grass is not available. The roots may become large, being 
six to eight inches in diameter with most of the root projecting 
above ground. They are easily harvested and storage is not difficult. 

The practice of growing sugar beets for home use is not common. 
The crop is abundantly grown near large beet sugar factories. 
However, the beets can be used at home. The crop is very pro- 
ductive of sugar, yielding fifteen to twenty per cent of refined 
sugar. A small garden patch will yield enough sugar and syrup 
for one family. The roots are sliced with a kraut cutter or other- 
wise about the time the ground begins freezing. The pulp is 
boiled until the sap is well extracted. The juice is then drawn off 
and boiled down as in the case of sorghum juice and maple sap. 
The home made product is not white as in the case of refined 
sugar. The refining process with charcoal and lime is not difficult 
for those who desire to practice it. 

Horse-radish. — This is an appetizer or condiment made from 
the roots of the plant. They are grated and stored in vinegar, 
very little vinegar being used. Grated horse rachsh is used with 
meats and other foods. A few plants at one side of the garden 
will persist indefinitely and furnish enough product for any family. 
Very little cultivation and attention is required. The plants are 
usually started from fingerling roots taken from the side of the 
older plants at harvest time. These may be set in the fall or spring, 
and will begin. growth as spring weather comes on. Bury the 
crowns about two or three inches deep in rich black garden soil. 
Keep the weeds away and no other enemies will disturb the plants. 
Dig the roots in late fall, wash and grate with a common kitchen 
vegetable grater or grind them with a meat grinder. Put this 
product in bottles, and enough vinegar to moisten, but not enough 
to fill all the space in the bottle. Turn bottles over a few times 
after stoppering them well, to wet all the mass with the vinegar. 

Rhubarb. — This crop furnishes palatable leaf stems for early 
spring use when other vegetables are not in season. The high per- 



116 COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 

centage of oxalic acid and other acids in the sap gives it certain 
properties which other vegetables do not have. The name pie- 
plant is given to the crop because of its special use in makmg pies, 
as well as in making sauce. 

Rhubarb prefers a rich black loam, and is much benefited by 
the addition of quantities of barnyard manure. The crop does 
best when not disturbed for a number of j^ears. The stalks die to 
the ground each fall, and new leaves grow in early spring. 

The crop is seldom grown from seed because of the long time 
required for the young plants to become large enough for table 
use. It is therefore usually propagated by division of roots, and 
each part planted must bear a bud formed at the crown or near the 
surface of the ground. Division is made either in late fall or early 
spring. The crop is usually planted at one side of the garden 
where plowing for other crops will not disturb it. The crowns 
should be planted a few inches below the general level of the soil 
and a mulch of manure may be placed above them. Extra manur- 
ing is usually given the plants each fall, and the new spring growth 
comes through this with much more vigor and increased size. 

As the leaves are pulled each spring, care should be exercised to 
not destroy the central crown bud in the center of each whorl of 
leaves. Pulling the outer leaves may continue for several weeks. 
After that the plants are allowed to renew their vigor by retaining 
their leaves the remainder of the season. Unless seeds are desired 
for propagation the flower stalks sent up by any of the plants are 
cut off before they exhaust the strength of the plants. 

Starvation of the plant is indicated whenever the leaf stalks 
become puny in size. Sometimes a similar result is noticed when 
the roots become crowded. In this case a division of the roots is 
necessary. Some of the crowded roots should be dug out and 
moved to another place. Additional manure may be added with 
favorable results. 

Asparagus. — This is another crop which should be planted at 
one side of the garden, as it is a perennial and should not be dis- 
turbed for many years. The roots may be divided or the crop may 
be started from seeds sown in small beds where the plants may be 
given close attention for one or two years. 

A good method of starting a permanent bed is to dig a ditch 
either with a shovel or by plowing out furrows to a depth of four- 
teen or sixteen inches. Fill the trench with rich black soil con- 
taining an abundance of manure well mixed with it. The asparagus 



ASPARAGUS 117 

crop needs very rich soil. In this trench plant one or two rows of 
two-year-old roots with thick, strong crowns. Leave the plants 
twelve to eighteen inches apart in the row, with the same distance 
between the rows. Plant the roots deep enough so the crowns will 
be covered two or three inches. This should be done in very early 
spring or in late fall. During the winter the rows should be covered 
with several inches of barnyard manure. The shoots will come up 
through this each spring and after the first year or two from plant- 
ing time may be cut for table use. 

Another plan is to plant a single row in a deep furrow and cover 
by throwing the soil back over the plants. The rows in commer- 
cial planting may be 4 feet apart. The depth of soil over the 
crowns of the plants may be greatly increased if the soil is some- 
what sandy. The space between rows is given thorough culti- 
vation throughout the growing season, and the plants are forced to 
make all growth possible from spring to fall. As the season closes 
the tops are mowed and raked off. The ground is all plowed 
with a turning plow, and heavy applications of manure are made 
along the rows. 

Cutting the crop is to be done carefully. Injury to the crowns 
by careless use of asparagus knives is far too common. As the 
shoots come through the soil and manure over the rows the knife is 
thrust at an angle through the soil to cut the shoot at its base, or 
just above the other buds. This must be done without cutting 
other shoots which are to appear later. 

There are two forms of product from this crop. The most popu- 
lar is the white asparagus produced in the manner already des- 
cribed. The shoots in this case have not been exposed to the sun- 
light and have not turned green. The other form of product 
sometimes desired by growers is the so-called "green asparagus." 
In this case the buds are near the top of the ground and the 
shoots are allowed to grow to some height before they are cut. 
This gives a much stronger flavor to the product and is usually 
not preferred by the consumer. 

The annual management consists in cutting for a period of four 
to six weeks in the spring, depending upon the strength of the 
plants. Then the crop is allowed to grow vigorously throughout 
the remainder of the season. Cultivation is given to encourage 
this growth and to keep out weeds. In home gardens it is well to 
cut out any stems which are about to bear seeds unless a seed crop 
is desired. The flowers are dioecious, that is, the staminate flowers 



118 COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 

are on some plants and the pistillate flowers on others. The 
staminate plants are preferable because no strength is lost in 
producing seeds. A heavy application of manure is given in the 
fall and winter after the tops have been mowed and removed. 
The manure is allowed to remain until after cutting season is over. 

Beds should remain undisturbed for many years. If properly 
manured and cultivated they will continue to increase the amount 
of cutting furnished each year. 

Asparagus rust is a serious disease of this plant which sometimes 
destroys the crop in certain sections. Thus far the best remedy is 
to propagate from plants which are immune to the disease. Although 
spraying with Bordeaux mixture will help control the rust, efforts 
by this method are not considered economical. 

Globe Artichoke. — The edible portion of the globe artichoke is 
the undeveloped flower bud. These buds are sold in the large 
markets. They are cooked in some-A'idt. the same way as aspar- 
agus, being served with cream or other dressing. The crop is 
propagated largely by seeds sown under glass in hotbeds or cold- 
frames Plants started m February or March may be transplanted 
to tne open garden in two months. Rich black soil is preferred. 
They are set three or four feet apart each way, and should be given 
clean tillage. The plants will yield some buds the first year if 
started in very early spring. 

The crop is chiefly grown in regions where the winter is not 
severe. During cold winters the plants should be covered with 
soil or coarse litter, as the stem must live over winter. 

Many side shoots or suckers start from the plants each spring, 
and these are sometimes used to start new plants. A portion of 
the cluster of flower buds should be taken with each shoot. Plant 
the crop at one side of the garden along with other perennials, as the 
plants will live for three or four years. 

Sea Kale. — Tliis is another crop which is used as a substitute 
for asparagus. The succulent leaf stalks are cooked in much the 
same way. The crop is even earlier in its spring growth. The 
plants are propagated either from seeds or from cuttings. They 
are set in rows three or four inches apart with the plants about 
two feet apart in the rows. No leaves should be cut until the 
plants are two or three years old. As in the case of rhubarb the 
seed stalks should be cut to prevent taking the strength of the 
plants. Heavy applications of manure should be made each fall 
to aid in producing strong, succulent growth. As the stems are to 



EXERCISES, SURVEYS, AND PROJECTS 119 

be blanched before using they are covered either with coarse 
litter, or may be covered with crates or boxes to exclude the light. 
Jerusalem Artichoke. — This product resembles the Irish potato. 
The plant itself belongs to the sunflower family and the flowers 
and leaves resemble other sunflowers. The tubers are not much 
used for human food, but are palatable and nutritious. Fields of 
the crop are grown by planting the tubers or the seeds. The crop 
is sometimes utilized by allowing pigs to root out the tubers and 
feed upon them. As many of the tubers are left in the ground and 
will grow the following year they should be started at only one 
side of the garden or in a remote place where they will not injure 
annual crops or become serious weeds. 

EXERCISES, SURVEYS, AND PROJECTS 

1-4. Read Nos. 1 to 4 given at the close of Chapter X. Now use the 
crops included in Chapter XI. 

5. Resistance to freezing should be tried by growing crops started in the 
fall. Plant the different crops of the onion group, including garhc, leeks, shal- 
lots, and cliives; also use young and old chard, collards, parsley, upland cress, 
kale, endive, mature carrots, mature parsnips, mature salsify and young beets. 
A part of each crop left in the garden for winter may be protected with differ- 
ent amounts of Utter. Note when each lot begins to die, if at all. Record the 
minimum temperatures each night. 

6. Enduranceof summer heat should be studied by growing crops included 
in this chapter. Start them in early spring and note the effect on each as hot 
weather comes. The effects of drouth should be noted in each case. Do the 
products become strong in flavor, tough, woody, or do the plants run to seed, 
or stop growth, or do they thrive well? 

7. Onions of several varieties should be grown to determine which are best 
for use in producing ripe onions from seed, to be stored or marketed. Also 
make a trial at the same time to see which are best for producing onion sets 
to sell or to plant at home. Soil and season often influence the growth of 
onion sets. 

8. Storage of special crops such as beets, carrots, and onions for winter 
should be tried at home. Use several of the best plans known and compare 
them. Also store parsnips and salsify by placing them in pits, cellars, or deep 
in the ground and compare with some left to freeze in the garden rows. Which 
are sweetest? Which keep best? 

9. Drying vegetables for winter use is a good home project for both young 
men and young women. Use the plan suggested in U. S. Farmers Bulletin 841, 
or elsewhere. A number of the vegetables in the home garden should be dried. 
Compare the results with other methods of saving them. 

10. Canning vegetables for market and for home use is also suitable for 
home projects for garden students. Read the methods given in U. S. Farmers' 
Bulletin 85.3 and in other bulletins. Containers of different kinds, different 
methods of packing, etc., may be tried. Calculate the profits after selling or 
using. 

1 1 . Horse-radish harvested in late fall may be grated or ground in a meat 
grinder and preserved in bottles with a little clear vinegsr. The bottles may 
be neatly labeled and sold or used during the winter. 



120 COOL SEASON VEGETABLES 

12. Forcing asparagus and rhubarb is a good winter exercise or project. 
Dig the largest roots and let them freeze. Later take them into a hotbed or to 
a cellar window and wet them with water slightly warmed. Do not force the 
growth too rapidly. Record the cost of labor and the value of products secured. 

13. Vegetable Svtfyey. — Make a list of the common cool-season vegetables 
of your region, and let each member of the class report on them for his own 
neighborhood — quantities or areas planted, purposes for which they are grown, 
varieties, why others of the list are not grown, etc. 

14. Market Prices. — Let the class visit a good vegetable market if possible, 
or let one student do this and report on the manner of preparing each vege- 
table for market, containers, prices, and quantities handled. 

15. Garden Returns. — -From such facts as those obtained in 13 and 14, 
calculate the garden returns of some good gardens, if products were sold in 
market. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give directions for growing onions from seed. 

2. How do garlic and leeks differ from true onions? 

3. Compare shallots with true onions. What special advantage have they? 

4. What two uses are made of Swiss chard? 

5. What advantage has New Zealand spinach over true spinach? 

6. What are the chief uses of parsley? Of upland cress? 

7. Why is kale a good greens crop for all the year? How could you save it for 

winter? 

8. Give the culture and use of endive. 

9. What crops in this chapter should have marker crops, as radishes or tur- 

nips, planted with them? 

10. Wliich crops in this chapter may be readily transplanted? 

11. Why ought parsnips and salsify to be planted at one side of the garden 

instead of in the middle? 

12. This is best for what other crops in this chapter? 

13. Give full directions for the growing of asparagus. 

14. Give the same for rhubarb. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 354 Onion Culture; 434, Onion 
Seeds and Sets; 567, Sugar-Beet Growing Under Irrigation; 568, Growing 
Sugar-Beets under Humid Conditions; 772, Control of the Sugar-Beet Nema- 
tode; 772, Nematode Control; 823, Beet Sirup; 829, Asparagus; 837, Asparagus 
Beetles and their Control; 1007, Control of Onion Thrips; 1193, Beet Leaf 
Beetle; 1152, Sugar-Beet Seed Growing; 1241, An Improved Method of 
Making Sugar-Beet Syrup. 



CHAPTER XII 
WARM SEASON VEGETABLES 

Crops of this group thrive best in the summer months. They 
are injured or killed by frosts in spring and fall. 

Sweet Com. — This is an important table vegetable in all sections 
of the country. It may be grown in all home gardens, except the 
very small ones. The product is good for use in the summer, and 
may be dried or canned for winter use. 

Rich, black loam or clay loam is best for corn. Spade or plow 
the soil to a great depth, pulverize it thoroughly and allow it to 
stand several weeks before planting, if possible. During this time 
it should be raked or harrowed several times to keep a soil mulch, 
preventing crusting, hasten the sprouting of weed seeds, and help 
to admit the warm air. 

Good varieties for the earliest product are Golden Bantam 
Peep-of-day, and Adams Early; for the medium season crop 
Country Gentleman is highly prized; for the latest crop Stowell's 
Evergreen is probably the best. 

A pint of seed is sufficient for 200 feet of rows. Plant four or five 
kernels in a place, making the places two or three feet apart. The 
rows may be three and one half feet apart. The plants may be 
thinned to leave only two or three stalks in each place. 

The ground should be kept thoroughly stirred to maintain a 
good loose mulch and prevent the loss of moisture. No weeds 
should be allowed to grow. 

When the silk on the cob begins to dry the corn should be about 
ready for table use. Kernels should be full of milk. It should be 
used immediately after picking. 

To dry the corn for winter use it should be cut from the cob and 
the kernels well scraped out with the back of a knife just after 
cooking for table use. Dry the kernels over the back of the stove 
or in an open oven. This drying may be continued during the 
preparation of several meals without use of extra fuel. When 
thoroughly dried the corn may be placed in paper bags or breakfast 
food boxes, which are then sealed by pasting paper over the opening. 
This keeps the weevils and other insects out. It should be stored 
where mice will not disturb it. For table use in winter it is soaked 

121 



122 WARM SEASON VEGETABLES 

for an hour, then cooked a httle and served with cream as in the 
summer time. 

Field Corn for Roasting Ears. — In the southern states field corn 
has a sweeter taste than in the northern states. It is therefore 
much used as roasting ears. When used for this purpose it should 
be selected very carefully and should be prepared for the table 
when the kernels are very young. Freshness is also more impor- 
tant with field corn. Sweet corn is to be preferred to the other 
varieties for winter use as dried corn. 

Pop Com. — This crop is very easily grown in any home garden. 
The so-called rice pop corn is the best type for planting. The 
season and methods are similar to those for other corn. The crop 
should be allowed to mature thoroughly before hai'vesting. When 
the ears are gathered they should be stored in a dry attic where 
there is some warmth from a chimney or some other dry place. Be 
careful about mice attacking it. 

Never plant pop corn too near other kinds of corn which will 
tassel at the same time. They are sure to cross and injure each 
other. If the tasseling is at different times no crossing will take 
place. 

Beans. — This is a warm weather crop and should not be planted 
before warm spring weather comes. A number of varieties of 
beans may be planted in succession, that is, several plantings of 
one kind may be made so that a fresh crop is developing through 
the long summer season. 

A rich sandy loam is preferred, and some phosphoric acid and 
potash may be added in the form of commercial fertilizer. 

Good varieties of snap beans are Stringless Green Pod, Ref- 
ugee, Kidney Wax, and Rust Proof Wax. A good pole bean to 
be used either as "snaps" or as a dried product is Kentucky 
Wonder. There are many other good pole beans, such as Pole 
Horticultural. 

Lima beans are of four different types. The bush limas include 
the small prolific bean of the Henderson type and also the large 
fleshy bean of the Burpee or Dreer type. The pole types are also 
of the two sizes but the large seeded kinds are the more popular. 

The soil should be deeply and thoroughly worked, and should 
be somewhat loose at planting time. If the soil can be plowed or 
spaded several weeks before planting time it should be kept 
stirred throughout the whole interval. This warms the soil and 
causes the seeds to sprout readily when planted. 



TOMATOES 



123 




Fig. 75. — Bush limas are less productive than pole 
limas, but they mature their crop in less time and 
labor of staking is saved. (New Jersey Station.) 



Bush beans (Fig 75) should be planted three or four inches 
apart in rows about two feet apart. Bush limas are given more 
space between the rows and also in the rows. One pint of seed is 
usually enough for planting 100 feet of row. Cover to a depth of 
one to two inches, depending on the moisture in the soil. 

Cultivate the plants well to maintain a good soil mulch and 
prevent the gro\vth of weeds. Frequent shallow tillage will do 
this. Climbing varieties 
may be planted near 
stalks of corn, or may be 
planted with the corn at 
corn planting time. Poles 
or stakes must be pro- 
vided when pole beans 
are planted alone. One 
common practice is to 
lean two rows of stakes 
together and tie them at 
the top, allowing the 
vines to climb and form 
an arch. Chicken wire 
and strings are used in different ways for supporting the vines. 

Many varieties of beans may be dried for winter use. The snap 
beans in pods are usually canned for winter use. 

Tomatoes. — This crop is usually grown from plants started 
in the house, hotbed or coldframe (Fig. 76). They should not 
be planted in the open garden until warm weather, and when all 
danger of frost is over. As a long season is required for the crop, 
much time is gained by having the plants well developed in beds or 
in-doors before time for transplanting to the garden. The best 
plants are produced by transplanting at least twice from the seed 
bed to trays or pots. 

Set the plants about two feet apart in rows at least three feet 
apart. If the garden is large more room should be allowed. A 
rich, well manured soil is best. Set the plants very deep and give 
the stem plenty of opportunity for forming new roots. This may 
be done by laying it somewhat horizontally in the furrow at 
planting time. The top must be allowed to extend a few inches 
above the soil. 

When growth is well started drive a stake near each plant and 
later tie the plant well up on this with raffia, coarse twine or strips 



124 



WARM SEASON VEGETABLES 



of cloth (Fig. 77). Some pruning of the plant is desirable. Reduce 
the number of stems as desired and remove the lower suckers. To 
induce a few plants to mature their crop extra early, the late blos- 
soms may be pinched off to force all of the strength of the plant 
into the earlier fruits. Clean, thorough tillage is necessary for 
the best growth. 

Good varieties of the early season are Earhana, Early Jewel; 
medium and late varieties are Livingston Beauty, Ponderosa, Acme, 
Stone, Baltimore. For canning the Stone is popular. Norton and 
Norduke (late) and Marvel (earlier) are wilt resistant. 

Tomatoes should alwavs be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture 




Fig. 70. — Tomato plants all of the .same age. From left to right; not shifted, shifted once, 
and sliifted twice. (Illinois Station.) 

containing some arsenate of lead. The combined spray material 
described under the head of Irish potatoes is well suited to the 
tomato crop. There are several fungous diseases which attack the 
tomato plant, and these are largoly prevented by Bordeaux 
mixture if it is applied early. Some poison is included with Bor- 
deaux mixture for the sake of fighting tomato worms or other leaf 
eating insects. 

Peppers. — This is a warm season crop. The plants are started 
in-doors or in hotbeds, as in the case of tomatoes. They require 
similar treatment, but usually are not staked. 



OKRA 



125 



Good varieties of the sweet pepper are Golden Queen, Bull 
Nose, and Chinese Giant (Fig. 62). Hot peppers used for pickle 
sauce are Cayenne and Red Hot. 

Eggplant. — This is a warm season crop, and the plants are started 
in-doors or in hotbeds or coldframes. At least two transplantings 
of the young plants should be made. If they can make their last 
growth in tin cans or pots before setting in the garden they will 
be much stronger. The crop should have rich black soil, well pre- 
pared before setting in the garden. 

Good, thorough tillage will help the plants to attain large size 
and yield abundant crops. (Fig. 78). 




Fig. 77. — Tying up tomatoes. Girls of the high sehool take a deep intrrest in school and 
home gardening. (U.S.D.A.) 

Good varieties are Black Beauty and Improved Purple. A very 
common enemy of the eggplant is the flea beetle, which eats holes 
in the leaves and may seriously injure the crop. To prevent this 
the plants are dusted with tobacco dust or sprayed with a solu- 
tion of nicotine sulfate. Arsenical poisons, such as arsenate of 
lead, are sometimes used. 

Okra, — This crop is grown abundantly in the southern states. 
It requires a long warm season. It is used for cooking alone or 
with tomatoes. Its chief use is in soups. It may be canned or 
dried for winter use. 

Good varieties are White Velvet, Lady Finger, Long Podded, 
and Perkin's Mammoth. The early varieties will form edible 



126 



WARM SEASON VEGETABLES 



pods in about forty days but will continue their growth until frost 
if properly cared for. Prepare the land by deep plowing and good 
thorough harrowing. Give a heavy dressing of barnyard manure 
either before or after harrowing. Plant the seeds three inches 
deep in drill rows about four to five feet apart. The plants after 
thinning should be one to two feet apart in the rows. Two ounces 
of seed is enough to plant 100 feet of row. Give clean, shallow 
tillage throughout the growing season. If the pods are kept 
picked as fast as they are large enough for table use the crop will 



f3C»L^^_ 




Fig. 78. — Good specimens of eggplant. (Illinois Station.) 

continue bearing much longer. Do not let any of the seed ripen on 
any plants except those that are wanted for seed purposes. 

Cucumbers. — This is a very tender crop and should be grown 
only in warm weather. The soil should be rich and mellow. When 
the danger of frost is past make places for the plants by opening 
the soil a foot deep and two feet across. Fill each hole two thirds 
full of barnyard manure, mixing in some soil. Cover this with 
soil and plant eight or ten seeds over this circle. The seeds may 
be soaked before planting. Cover them about one inch deep. 
The clumps may be five or six feet apart each way. After the 



WATERMELONS 127 

plants are up and begin to crowd each other a few may be removed 
if necessary. 

Good varieties are White Spine, Davis Perfect, and Emerald. 

If an early crop is desired the plants may be started in a hotbed 
or coldframe in pasteboard boxes or berry boxes. These are trans- 
planted to the garden after danger of frost is over. 

After the vines begin to run they should be made to take root at a 
number of places by covering a little with some soil. This will 
help to control injury from vine borers. Cultivate the crop thor- 
oughly until the vines cover the ground. Protect the plants while 
young in the home garden with box frames covered with mosquito 
bar. These are to keep off cucumber beetles which eat the leaves 
and destroy the plants. These beetles may be killed by spraying 
with arsenate of lead. After the cucumbers begin to form, continue 
to fight the beetles by dusting the vines with tobacco dust, lime 
dust, or b}^ spraying with nicotine sulfate. 

Inter-cropping with snap beans of the bush varieties should be 
practiced. Plant the snap beans as early as the cucumbers are 
planted. As soon as the vines begin to need all of the ground these 
beans will have produced a crop and may be removed. 

Muskmelons. — This crop should be grown some distance from 
cucumbers and squashes. They are apt to cross-pollinate with 
them and the fruits will be seriously injured. 

The best varieties of the canteloupe group of muskmelons are 
Rocky Ford, Jennie Lind, Netted Gem and Paul Rose. There are 
many other good varieties offered in garden catalogs. (Fig. 79). 
Muskmelons may be forced in hotbeds as described for cucumbers. 
In the field they are given more space, the groups of plants being 
SLX or seven feet apart each way. They will respond well when 
thoroughly manured. Each group of plants should be thinned to 
not more than four or five plants. In large fields they are planted 
by opening furrows six feet apart. Seeds are dropped in the fur- 
rows and covered and later the plants are thinned to about two 
feet apart. The manure may be placed all along the furrow. 

This crop is also attacked by cucumber beetles and vine borers. 
See remedies mentioned under the head of cucumbers. 

Watermelons. — This crop is particularly favored by rich sandy 
loam. It thrives best in veiy warm climates where the moisture 
conditions are favorable. Here the melons reach their largest size 
and best qualities. 

Good varieties are Florida Favorite, Tom Watson, Georgia 



128 



WARM SEASON VEGETABLES 



Rattlesnake, and Kleckley Sweet. The Ice Cream variety is 
grown in northern states because it will mature in less time than 
others. The melons are small in size. 

Besides for eating in the usual way during summer the crop is 
valuable for the rinds which are sometimes preserved as sweet 
pickles for use in winter. 

Plant the seeds after soaking for a few hours. Make the rows 
ten feet apart and the plants eight or ten feet apart in the rows. 
Two or three plants in a place may be allowed. Rich soil about 
the plants is necessary for the best growth. A fork full of manure, 
or more, about the hills will pay. The watermelon vines are less 
likely to be attacked by cucumber beetles and vine borers. If 




Fig. 79. — Large type of oblate muskmelon, with fleep flpsli, edible clear to the rind. (Ver- 
mont Station.) 

good cultivation and plenty of manure are provided the growth is 
so rapid that these enemies are seldom noticed. 

The crop is frequently grown in large fields because of requiring 
so much space in the garden. It is best when grown in the garden 
to use other plants, such as snap beans near them until the water- 
melon vines have grown enough to need the whole space. 
^ I Squash. — Remember to plant this crop where it will not mix 
with cucumbers, muskmelons, or pumpkins. There are two main 
types of squash, the bush variety and the running variety. Much 
more space is required for the running varieties. In selecting seed 
from the catalog note carefully which type is chosen. The running 
varieties are much more prolific and a fewer number of them will 
be necessary to supply the needs of the family. 

In the matter of season, there are two types. The summer 



MUSHROOMS 129 

squash is harvested green during the summer season. Popular 
varieties of this type are Patty Pan and Summer Crook Neck. The 
winter squash forms a hard rind when mature. Popular varieties 
are Delicious, Hubbard and Boston Marrow. Cushaw is one of 
the crooknecks. The winter squash may be stored in cellars 
until mid wmter. In harvesting for storage they should be very 
ripe with firm rind, and should be handled carefully. 

Prepare the soil as thoroughly as possible. Plant the bush 
varieties in places about four or five feet apart each way. The 
running varieties should have space of about eight or ten feet 
each way. Two or three plants may be left in each place. The 
crop grows best in hot weather, and will not endure frost. Plant 
two or three weeks after earliest corn planting time. Soak the 
seeds before planting and cover them one inch deep. The crop is 
sometimes grown in rows of com as the plants will endure shade 
almost as well as do pumpkins. If grown with sweet corn of the 
early or medium varieties the corn stalks may be cut as fast as the 
roasting ears are removed. The squash vines then have the entire 
area. The corn will help somewhat in preventing too much cross- 
pollination with cucumbers and melons, though it will not insure 
this. After the summer squash crop is harvested the vines may be 
removed and late com crops may be planted. 

Pumpkins. — There are two main types of pumpkin grown 
chiefly in corn fields. The small pie pumpkin is sweeter than the 
large field pumpkin. The latter is used chiefly for stock. The 
pumpkin endures shade well and thrives well in growing fields of 
corn. The seeds may be planted in every third row and covered 
about one inch deep. Two or three seeds are planted in each 
place. This is done after the corn is about ready to tassel, or a 
little earlier than that. The com cultivation may be over by the 
time the pumpkin vines begin to run too much. The crop is often 
harvested after the corn is cut. This may be done either by haul- 
ing in the crop after frost or by turning stock into the field. The 
table varieties may be stored in cellars or pits which do not freeze. 

Mushrooms.— This crop is seldom thought of as a garden crop. 
It can be grown in a cellar or in a vegetable pit where there is 
little light and where rotting manure may form enough heat to 
warm the soil. The crop is sometimes grown under beds of green 
houses, or under benches in cellars. Some half rotted manure 
may be incorporated with the soil, then some spawn of mushrooms 
may be scattered over this and watered thoroughly. If warm 
9 



130 WARM SEASON VEGETABLES 

water is used it will start the growth and the heating of the manure 
more promptly. Experience is necessary to make a success of the 
musliroom bed. With favorable conditions results are very grat- 
ifying. Even when the best rules are followed carefully the results 
are sometimes discouraging. Conditions must be studied closely. 
The average gardener without experience is not willing to study 
the conditions enough. The temperature must not be too warm 
nor too cold. Most of the light must be excluded. Plenty of 
water must be in the soil without drowning it. The spawn must be 
fresh and must not be killed during the starting period. 

Mushrooms are coming more into favor. They are fried in 
butter or other fresh grease and are served as beef steak. They 
may be made into stews or used in soups. They are not only 
palatable, but have considerable nutritive value. 

Mushrooms found in the woods or garden may be gathered 
while fresh. Care must be exercised to distinguish the edible ones 
from the poisonous kinds. 

EXERCISES, SURVEYS, AND PROJECTS 

1-4. Suggestions Nos. 1 to 4 at the close of Chapter X should de applied 
to the present chapter. 

5-6. Suggestions for drying and canning given in Nos. 9 and 10, Chapter 
XI, should be considered here with reference to the hot weather crops. Dry 
or can corn and beans, can tomatoes, (make preserves of the small ones). Dry 
or can egg-plant, peppers, squash, pumpkin, and okra. 

7. Salting and pickling a cucumber crop may be a part of a project in 
cucumber production. See directions in U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 881. Keep 
record of cost and profits. Use watermelon rinds also for sweet pickles. Snap 
beans may be brined or pickled. 

8. Home garden projects may be carried on by all students. Each pro- 
ject may include all the general garden crops or may be confined to special 
crops grown on a larger scale, as cantaloupes, watermelons, sweet corn, etc. 
Each project should include production, management, harvesting, storing, use, 
marketing, etc. Records should be kept in each case of the cost, value, profits, 
or labor income. 

9. Exhibits of garden products should be made once a year to which the 
people are invited. The products should be judged whether premiums are 
offered or not. Include fresh specimens shown in attractive market conditions, 
and products stored, canned, dried, salted and pickled. 

10. Debates. — Resolved, that there is more money in growing musk- 
melons than in growing watermelons. 

Resolved, that there is more profit in growing cucumbers for market, salt- 
ing and pickling, than in watermelons or muskmelons . 

11. Surveys. — Let each student report for his neighborhood the areas 
devoted to each of the crops of this chapter; including variety of preferences, 
uses, diseases, marketing methods, etc. 



QUESTIONS 131 

QUESTIONS 

1. How would you produce a continuous supply of roasting ears for home use 

during the season? 

2. Give cultural directions to maintain the supply of moisture for corn and 

similar garden crops. 

3. What varieties of beans are best for winter use as a ripe product? 

4. What varieties for snap beans? 

5. Discuss the different types of lima beans. 

6. How would you produce a succession of fresh green beans? 

7. Give directions for pruning and staking tomatoes. 

8. Give directions and purposes for spraymg tomatoes. 

9. Give directions for growing eggplants. 

10. What are the chief uses of okra? 

11. Give directions for the successful production of cucumbers for pickling and 

for table use. 

12. How are cantaloupes produced ahead of the main crop of the region? Give 

details. 

13. Describe soils and conditions for economical production of watermelons. 

14. Same for squash and pumpkin. 

15. Describe a good method of mushroom culture. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 232, Okra; 254, Cucumbers; 318, 
Cowpeas; 414, Corn Cultivation; 431, The Peanut; 537, How to Grow an Acre 
of Co'-n; 553, 554, Popcorn; 642, Tomato Growing in the South; 668, Squash 
Vine Borer; 707, Commeicial Cantaloupes; 886, Harvesting Soy Beans for 
Seed. 

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 204, 796, Mushrooms; 232, Okra, 
254, Cucumbers; 289, Beans; 414, Corn Cultivation; 553, .554, Popcorn; 642, 
Tomato Growing in the South; 668, Squash Vine Borer; 707, Commercial 
Cantaloupes, 886, Harvesting Soybeans for Seed; 907, Growing Beans in the 
Northwest; 914, Melon Aphis Control; 969, Horse Beans; 973, Soybean Cul- 
ture and Use; 983, Bean Weevils and Pea Weevils; 1038, Cucumber Beetle; 
1148, Cowpeas; 1153, Cowpea UtiHzation; 1233, Tomatoes for Canning and 
Manufacturing, 



■n. 



CHAPTER XIII 

POTATOES 

In northern states the word "potato" almost invariably refers 
to the Irish potato. In southern states, however, the meaning is 
less definite and the name ''potato" would cause some to first 
think of the sweet potato. Because of this uncertainty, we should 
refer to these two crops with their more definite names, "Irish 
potato" and "sweet potato," 

IRISH POTATOES 

This crop originated in America. Later it was introduced into 
Ireland and was grown so extensively in that country that the 
name "Irish potato" clung to it. It is grown in nearly all parts of 
the civilized world and leads all other crops in total tonnage. In 
production recent statistics show the order of maximum tonnage 
in the following countries: Germany, European Russia, Austria 
Hungary, France, United States, United Kingdom of Great 
Britian. The average yields vary from one to two hundred bushels 
of sixty pounds each. In the United States, the eight leading 
states are placed in the following order: New York, Michigan, 
Wisconsin, Maine, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Ohio, Iowa. Maine 
has the honor of producing the largest average in bushels per acre. 

Soils for Potatoes. — Crops of the best quality are produced on 
rich sandy loams rather than on heavy soils. Rich sandy loams 
also produce earlier crops than the heavy soils. Long-season varie- 
ties, which are intended for keeping over winter, may be grown 
very successfully in the medium and clay loams provided enough 
organic matter is present. The best method of adding organic 
matter to the soil for potatoes is by using green manure. Barn- 
yard manure if applied to the soil several months or a year in 
advance will add much humus but it is not a good practice to 
apply the barnyard manure just before the planting of the crop. 
It tends to increase the scab disease and does not benefit the soil 
for that crop. 

Under-drainage will greatly improve heavy soils for the potato 
crop. The soil will be better aerated and will not become puddled. 
132 



PREPARATION OF SOILS FOR POTATOES 133 

Fertilizers for Potatoes. — In the most intensive potato growing 
districts, commercial fertilizers are used in growing the crop. A mix- 
ture containing four per cent of nitrogen, six per cent of phosphate 
and eight per cent of potash will suit the average Irish potato soils. 

Much can be saved by "growing" nitrogen instead of buying it. 
If an annual crop of green manure is plowed under each year, 
the nitrogen supply will be abundant. This is particularly true if 
the green manure is composed of clover, vetch, or some other 
legume. Barn yard manure will help also to take the place of the 
nitrogen. Heavy soils are likely not to need as much phosphoric 
acid. It is also true that application of potash is more important 
on sandy soils than on heavy soils. Where earlj- potatoes are 
growTi for market, coimnercial fertilizer will aid materially in 
producing the crop quickly. The amount saved in getting the 
crop in to market at a high price will probably pay for the fertilizer 
used. Growers often use as much as five hundred to one thousand 
pounds per acre, or more. 

The use of lime on potatoes is apt to cause scab disease but if it is 
applied on the crop preceding the potatoes in the rotation, the 
residue in the soil will help the potato crop. If this plan is followed, 
the best form of lime is ground limestone. 

Preparation of Soils for Potatoes.— Plowing should be very deep. 
The crop should have a loose open "soil. For this reason it is not 
necessary to have the plowing done long before planting time. It 
does not need to be repacked as it would be for com, wheat and 
other small grain. The so-called deep tillage machines where one 
disk follows behind the other in the same furrow are best for the 
preparation of heavy soils for potato growing. Judgment should 
be exercised so that too much of the subsoil will not be turned to the 
surface at any one time. If, however, it is done with the disk plow, 
the subsoil brought up will be so very thoroughly incorporated 
with the other soil that little or no damage will be done in deepen- 
ing the soil considerably at one season. 

If a plow is run rather shallow, a subsoil plow which stirs the 
the bottom of the furrow but does not bring the loose soil to the 
top will deepen the root bed for the potato crop. If the ground is 
plowed in the fall as in the northern states, deep disking before 
planting is very desirable. This is also true if the sod has been 
turned under in the spring. The disk harrow will cut the sod to 
pieces and mix the organic matter with the soil. The smoothing 
harrow used after the disk harrow will prepare the ground well for 



134 POTATOES 

planting. Hand methods of preparing soil for planting are labo- 
rious and expensive for large areas. 

Varieties of Potatoes for Different Seasons and Sections. — In 
northern states, one crop only is grown in the season. For the 
home garden a small quantity is planted of some early variety. 
This may be Irish Cobbler (Fig. 81), Early Red Triumph, Early 
Ohio, or some other crop which grows quickly. The yield is always 
comparatively small for the early crop. 

The main crop to be used for winter storage or for winter market- 
ing is planted m rather early spring and occupies the ground 
throughout the growing season. Suitable varieties are Rural New 
Yorker, Burbank (Fig. 80), Carman No. 3, and many others. In 
each section there are certain varieties which become popular partly 
because of their special adaptation to the soils of the I'egion. 

In southern states two crops are commonly grown. These may 
not both occupy the same soil but the late crop is planted after the 
early crop is harvested. In all states southward from Virginia and 
Tennessee, the late crop may be planted as late as July 15 or 
August 1. The spring crop is started in February or March, or as 
soon as the ground can be safely worked. For winter storage the 
fall crop is the best, but where storage facilitates are very favorable, 
the spring crop hai-vested in July may be kept over for winter use. 
The varieties commonly used for both fall and spring crops are the 
same. They include Irish Cobbler, Early Triumph, Green Moun- 
tain, and others. 

The long season crops are seldom grown in southern states. 
The long hot summers are not particularly favorable to their 
growth and the yield is less than where two crops are grown in 
one season. 

Seed Potatoes. — It is a very common practice for the northern 
states to supply southern growers with seed potatoes. To some 
extent this practice is founded upon a belief that southern grown 
seed potatoes are not so productive. Probably another cause for 
this practice was poor storage facihties in the South. Potatoes 
kept over winter under unfavorable conditions may rot or sprout 
too soon. Cold storage facilities rather tend to remedy this 
difficulty. 

In northern latitudes seed potatoes are kept over from the pre- 
ceding year and arc less seldom shipped from cold storage plants. 
They may be stored in cellars free from frost. In an earlier chapter 
methods of unproving seed potatoes have been described. 



RATE OF PLANTING 



135 



Cutting Seed Potatoes. — Under ''Propagation by Tubers," a 
method of cutting potatoes through the stem-end and eye-end into 
long fingers has been suggested. It is quite common to cut pota- 
toes into pieces containing one or two eyes or buds. When seed 



Fig. 80. 





Fig. 81. 

Fig. 80. — Long slender Irish potatoes of the Burbank type. 
Fia. 81. — Roundish, snaooth potatoes of the Irish Cobbler type. 

potatoes are high in price, this is probably the best plan. When 

seed is not so expensive larger pieces will pay, giving larger yields. 

Rate of Planting. — A trial at the Ohio Station on the number of 

eyes to the piece and bushels of seed potatoes to the acre showed 



136 



POTATOES 



the results in the accompanying table and chart. With the variety- 
Carman No. 3 the most profitable rate of seeding was with half 
tubers using twenty-five bushels per acre, when the price was fifty 
cents a bushel. With the Bovee variety shown in the chart, the 
greatest profit was with two-eye pieces using fifteen bushels 
per acre. 

Results of Using Different Quantities of Bovee Seed Potatoes per Acre. Average 

for Two Years 



Size, etc. 


Bu. seed 
per acre 


Yield per 
acre, bus. 


50 100 1.50 




10 


M* 146.6 
Ut 32.7 












■^ 






15 


M 159.1 
U 45.5 






^IH 




25 


M 131.7 
U 73.5 






Half tubers 






i^Bum 












40 


M 168.7 
U 99.4 














Small or 2 oz. tubers. . 


22.6 


M 150.1 
U 73.5 




' 


H^^^B 









* M, marketable yield; t U, unmarketable. 



Treating to Prevent Scab. — Before the seed potatoes have been 
cut they should be soaked for an hour or two in a solution of 
formalin composed of one pint of formalin (40 per cent strength) 
in thirty-two gallons of water. The scab disease (Fig. 82) is 
likely to be introduced into any garden soil if the seed potatoes 
have not been treated by some method to kill the scab spores. The 
method here given is very inexpensive and is not a dangerous one. 

Sprouting Seed Potatoes. — Either before or after the potatoes 
are cut for planting they are sometimes spread on a barn floor or 
indirect sunlight, to cause more rapid growth as soon as planted. 
(Fig. 83) According to trials at the Missouri Station, this practice 
of greening and sprouting is hardly worth while for old seed. 

Planting Potatoes. — The distance between rows is usually about 
three feet. The distance between plants in the rows may be from 
eight inches to two feet, depending on the soil and the variety. 



CULTURE 



137 



In the home garden a simple method of planting is to open the 
furrows with the plow and drop the seed pieces in by hand and 
cover them with the hoe or with the harrow. 

In commercial planting, machines are commonly used which open 
the furrow, drop the potatoes and the fertilizer, and cover the fur- 
rows all in one operation. This makes 
the work very rapid and inexpensive. 

Culture. — One of the secrets of success 
in the cultivation of the growing crop is 
to keep the soil very loose. For the first 
few weeks the tillage should be very 
deep. The soil should be stirred very 
thoroughly. 

The plan of cultivation called level 
tillage is usually best for this crop. The 
most successful growers sometimes 
throw a little dirt towards the vines at 
the times of the last cultivation. Very 
much ridging, however, is certain to 
cause the soil to dry out. This is ex- 
tremely detrimental to the growing crop. 
The soil should be kept moist and cool 
and the vines should be allowed to spread out over the ground to 
shade it as soon as cultivation is stopped. Growers usually stop 
the cultivation at the time the plants are in full blossom. The 




Fig. 82. — Common potato scab 
reduces the yield, causes waste in 
peeling, and infests the soil for 
future potato crops. See methods 
of control in the text. (Minnesota 
Station.) 











Fig. 8.3. — Seed potatoes exposed to the light before planting will develop stubby, green 
sprouts instead of tender, white sprouts. Strong plants are developed rapidly when those 
with the green sprouts are planted. Left tuber in light four weeks; right, ten weeks. (After 
Ohio Station.) 



138 POTATOES 

tubers should be of large size at this time and further use of the 
cultivator is apt to disturb them or dig them out of the ground. 

Spraying for Blight and Beetles. — The two worst enemies of 
the Irish potato crop which can be controlled by spraymg are late 
blight (Fig. 84) and the Colorado potato beetle. The blister 
beetle and the black flea beetle are sometimes serious pests. These 
however can be controlled by the same methods as are used for 
the Colorado potato beetle. 

Spraying with the combined spray will control these enemies 
fairly well. Bordeaux mixture used before the blight begins will 
very largely prevent its attacks. Poisons applied when the beetles 




Fig. 84. — Late blight disease of potatoes showing the slirunken. rotted area. Avfoid 
planting affected tubers and spray the growing crop with BorOeaux nuxtuie. (Ohio 
Station.) 

are at work will kill them. For this purpose arsenate of lead or 
Paris green may be used. 

A combined spray material is made by mixing arsenate of lead or 
Paris green with Bordeaux mixture. The amount of poison used 
with the Bordeaux would be the same as with a like amount of 
water. (See Chapter XXV.) Make up the desired amount of Bor* 
deaux mixture and add as much poison to it as if it were merely 
water. When this combined spray is applied to the potato crop 
the beetles are killed, better than when the poison is used without 
the Bordeaux because the spray material is not so easily washed 
off by rains. The plants are not so likely to be injured by the 
arsenic in the poison because the lime in the Bordeaux takes up 
the free arsenic and prevents injury. 

As the plants form new growth another spraying is required to 



STORING IRISH POTATOES 139 

cover the new leaf surface. If the spray material covers the entire 
plant the beetles will be destroyed first and the blight will be 
prevented. 

Time for Harvesting the Potato Crop. — Irish potatoes are not 
mature until the vines cease growing. They are frequently dug 
and used at this time as "new potatoes." Those intended for 
storage for winter use should be allowed to mature as much as 
possible in the soil. 

The fall crop does not need to be harvested until nearly time for 
the ground to freeze. Fall frosts do not injure the tubers and a 
slight freezing of the ground will do no harm unless it prevents the 
grower from hai'Aesting the crop. 

Digging the Tubers. — There are several methods of digging 
Irish potatoes fi'oni the ground. 

1. The potatoes are sometimes dug by the use of hand tools 
such as a spading fork, potato hook, or common hoe. This method 
is slow and laborious and would be used only in the small home 
garden. 

2. Plowing out the tubers with the common turning plow is 
more rapid and is well suited to the crop raised for winter use for 
the entire family. A modification of this method is to use a special 
plow with two or three prongs on each side of the double mold- 
board. This does not cover so many of the potatoes with the soil. 
They are more easify picked up after the plow throws them out. 

3. Special potato cUggers pulled by three or four horses are 
used in commercial fields. The machine has a large broad shovel 
which goes entirely beneath the row of potatoes and lifts the whole 
mass of dirt, tubers and vines up on a travelling carrier. This 
carries them over the axle of the machine and drops them on a series 
of bars which will let the soil through and drop the potatoes on top 
of the ground, a Httle at one side or behind the machine. This 
leaves them out of the way of the machine when taking the next row. 

Potatoes are picked up in baskets, crates or bags and are hauled 
in for sale or for winter storage. 

Storing Irish Potatoes. — It is important to have a cool cellar, 
pit, or special storehouse for saving potatoes during cold weather. 
Cellars warmed with furnace heat are not suited to this purpose. 
The tubers are not hard to keep but they should not be warmed or 
dried too much. If frozen, they acquire a sweetish taste which 
is not palatable. This may later change to a bitterness which 
renders them unfit for table use. 



140 POTATOES 

Good vegetable storehouses are frequently made detached from 
the dwelling. A cellar is dug six or eight feet in depth and walled 
with concrete, brick, stone or lumber. A roof is placed over this 
and a stairway is provided at one end. If the surface drainage is 
good, the cellar may serve as an ideal storage place for Irish pota- 
toes and a number of other root crops. 

SWEET POTATOES 

The sweet potato plant is believed to be a native of South 
America. Thus three of our most important food crops, the Irish 
potato the sweet potato, and Indian corn, were cUscovered in 
America. 

The sweet potato crop is grown in nearly all states but is pro- 
duced chiefly in the southern states where the climate is mild, the 
season long, and where moisture conditions are favorable. 

Relationships. — The sweet potato belongs to the morning-glory 
family and is therefore closely related to the morning-glory of the 
flower garden and to some of our worst weeds in the field. 

Soil. — The sweet potato prefers a rather sandy loam and unlike 
the Irish potato is not much helped by the addition of organic 
matter. When soils are rather too poor for the Irish potato, they 
are often planted with sweet potatoes. 

Feeding the Crop. — As sweet potatoes are not much improved 
by the addition of stable manure, the best way to feed plants is 
to apply commercial fei'tilizers. From five to seven hundred 
pounds per acre of the general fertilizer may be used. Mix three 
hundred pounds tankage, one hundred pounds dried blood, four 
hundred pounds acid phosphate and two hundred pounds muriate 
or sulfate of potash. This would have a formula of about two 
and one half per cent nitrogen, nine per cent phosphate and ten 
per cent potash. 

Starting the Plants. — Sweet potato plants are commonly called 
slips. The seed potatoes are spread out in a dense layer in the 
hotbed or coldframe. The potatoes are covered with a few inches 
of light sand or soil. The bed is then covered with muslin or glass. 
The potatoes are kept well watered and in about six weeks pulling 
of the slips may begin. The larger plants are best for setting in 
the garden but second and third puUings from the same roots 
may be used if necessary. The best plants have a good supply of 
roots, vigorous crowns and strong stems A good supply of leaves 
is best. 



TRANSPLANTING TO THE GARDEN 



141 



In northern sections considerable heat is required in the beds. 
In the regions where freezing weather is Hkely to occur during the 
bedding season, artificial heating is provided by stoves or fire 
places with long flues running somewhat horizontally under the bed. 

In the southern states, the plants can easily be sown early 
enough for garden use by using coldframes covered with cloth or 
glass. (Fig. 85.) These are located in sunny places protected 
from the cold, strong winds. In middle latitudes manure heated 
beds are most commonly used. 

Transplanting to the Garden. — The plants are usually removed 
from the propagation beds by first watering them well and then 




Fig. 85. — Bedding sweet potatoes in frames to be covered with cloth. The roots are covered 
with one or two inches of soil. (Illinois Station.) 

pulling by hand. (Fig. 86.) They are then sorted if necessary and 
the roots are put in buckets containing muddy water. 

After the soil has been well prepared by deep plowing and pul- 
verizing, the plants are dropped in open furrows about two 
feet apart. 

It is common to throw up a slight ridge by throwing two furrows 
of soil together and then open a furrow on this ridge by using a 
shovel plow. 

After the plants are dropped in place, the planting is completed 
by hand. Fine soil is drawn around the roots and stem, leaving 



142 



POTATOES 



about one half the stem projecting from the ground. In dry 
weather watering at the time of setting is very helpful. Barrels of 
water may be hauled and a pint of water may be poured on each 
plant and a little dry soil used to cover over the wet soil to form a 
mulch. 

Transplanting machines (Fig. 87) are used in many large fields. 
These machines are operated by two or three persons. A furrow 
is opened, the plant set and watered, and 
the dry soil filled over the watering all at 
one time. 

Cultivation. — The sweet potato requires 
fi very loose open soil. To attain this, deep 
tillage is practiced at least during the early 
part of the growth. Several cultivations 
are necessary, and one hoeing to remove 
any weeds is best. 

At the time of the last cultivation the 
soil is thrown toward the plants to leave it 
in slight ridges. As the potato vines begin 
to run, cultivation will be necessary. The 
ground is well shaded by the vines and is 
less likely to bake. 

Enemies and Their Control. — Probably 
the worst enemy of the sweet potato is the 
stem-rot. This is soinetimes very serious 
and affects much of the crop. Recent ex- 
periments indicate that the best methods 
of combatting the disease is to select seed 
potatoes from a field free from the disease. 
Some immunity to the disease is supposed to exist. Where the 
season is long enough, cuttings from healthy vines may be rooted 
early in the season for the rest of the patch. Never use plants 
from near diseased parts of propagation beds. 

Harvesting Sweet Potatoes.^ — ^The crop is very sensitive to fall 
frost and harvesting should be completed before the first light 
frosts occur. Avoid digging the crop when the soil is very wet 
or muddy as the potatoes should be cured as promptly as possible. 
In l)right weather the potatoes may be left on the sin^face of the 
groimd after digging and allowed to dry before hauling them into 
storage. Methods of digging are similar to those used for the Irish 
potato, (1) By hand tools, (2) By plows, (3) By machine diggers. 




A?^,^_ 



Fio. 86. — In sweet potato 
beds, thin the plants often to 
produce short stems and many 
leaves as here shown. 



EXERCISES, SURVEYS, AND PROJECTS 



143 



Storage of Sweet Potatoes. — The principles of storage for sweet 
potatoes are very different from those for Irish potatoes. The 
roots should be put in the sun or in a warm room to thoroughly 
dry the surface before they are put away for storage. 

Storehouses are sometimes built where the crates of potatoes 
are placed in narrow tiers from floor to ceiling. Somewhere in the 
room a stove is used to dry the air thoroughly. If there is free cir- 
culation of air through the crates, the potatoes will soon be dry 
enough to avoid rotting. The same room may be used to keep the 
potatoes during the cold weather providing they are well msulated 
from the outside cold. 




Fig. S7. — A transplanting machine for cabbage, tomato, tobacco, cauliflower, sweet 
potato and others grown on a large scale. The furrow is opened, the boys place the plants, 
some water is dropped from the barrel, and the soil is pressed against the roots. (U.S.D.A.) 

Conditions accompanying the world war have taught many 
people to thoroughly dry sweet potatoes instead of storing them in 
the usual ways. In the dry condition they may be kept several 
months and there is no waste from rotting. 



EXERCISES, SURVEYS, AND PROJECTS 

1. Potatoes. — A home project in the improvement of seed potatoes should 
be started. Use the hill-row .system. That is, select seed entirely from the best 
hills at harvest time. Plant the potatoes from each hill separately. Indicate 
these by numbers on stakes and on a record. Compare the yield of each and 
again select the best hills for seed. 

2. Potatoes of several different varieties may be grown in comparison 
with each other. Compare them as to yield and judge each by the score card. 



144 POTATOES 

3. Fertilizing potatoes with different kinds and amounts of commercial 
fertilizer is a good feature in a project of growing sweet potatoes or Irish pota- 
toes. Vary the proportions of nitrogen, phosphate, and potash. 

4. Storage of Potatoes. — Find what methods of storing Irish potatoes for 
the winter are in use in the region. Compare these as to results, expense, and 
labor. 

5. Calculate the losses during storage by the best methods and determine 
the profits resulting from storage of potatoes for home use and for winter or 
spring market. 

6. The storage of sweet potatoes may also be studied as suggested for Irish 
potatoes in 4 and 5. 

7. Seed potatoes. — Compare these two plans for your region: (1) Saving 
Irish potatoes for seed or (2) purchasing those shipped from another region at 
planting time. Which of these methods do you find in more common practice? 

8. Growing Sweet Potato Plants. — Make a comparative study of the 
methods practiced in your region, of growing sweet potato plants. Include 
time and method of bedding, heating, sterilizing, watering, etc. 

9. Planting. — If a machine planter for Irish potatoes is in use in the neigh- 
borhood, study the rate of planting, saving, cost, and profit as compared with 
the hand methods. How large would the field need to be to warrant the use 
of a machine planter? 

10. Make a similar study regarding the use of a transplanting machine for 
sweet potatoes. 

11. Methods of Cultivation. — Compare the level culture with slightly 
ridged and highly ridged rows for (1) Irish potatoes, (2) sweet potatoes. These 
may be home projects. 

12. Compare shallow cultivation with deep cultivation for either sweet or 
Irish potatoes. Cultivate a number of rows by each method. Have the plots 
alike in other respects. 

13. Treating for Scab. — Plant some seed potatoes infested with scab with- 
out treating them to prevent the disease. Near these put others that have been 
treated as directed. Compare results in the crop. 

14. The dusting and spraying methods of fighting potato beetles should 
be compared in the same garden. Note the difference if any in control of the 
beetles, cost, labor, effect on plants, etc. 

15. The value of spraying with Bordeaux mixture against late blight may 
be carefully tried by thoroughly spraying one plot with this mixture (combined 
with poison for beetles) and leaving another plot untreated with Bordeaux 
mixture. In other matters the two plots must be treated alike. The number of 
sprayings with Bordeauximixture necessary to control the blight disease may 
be tested at the same time. 

16. Debates or Discussions. — Resolved, that a storage house for sweet 
potatoes is necessary for the most profitable marketing of sweet potatoes. 

Resolved, that growing sweet potatoes is more profitable than growing 
Irish potatoes where soils and climate are favorable. 

Resolved, that fighting diseases and insects is more expensive for the 
Irish potato crop than either planting, cultivation, or harvest. 

Would! it pay to organize and maintain a potato marketing association 
for the region? Give arguments on both sides. 

17. Potato Survey.— Let each pupil report for his own neighborhood 
on the following points: acrearages of sweet potatoes and Irish potatoes, varie- 
ties of each for each farm, treatment, rates of planting, methods of cultivation, 
spraying, times of harvesting, yields, marketing, methods of storing. 

18. Variety Contests. — Let several lots or 'plates' of each of the local varie- 



QUESTIONS 145 

ties of sweet potatoes or Irish potatoes be brought to the school for study. Each 
should contain five of the best specimens. These should be properly labeled 
and then studied and compared by each student. Then let the labels be re- 
moved and the specimens rearranged for use in a contest in identification. 

19. Scoring Contest. — A scoring contest with Irish potatoes may follow 
the variety study. Let each student score each lot, using the following 
points. The best ranking and scoring of all samples should win the contest: 

1. General appearance; size (5), uniformity ineize (5), freshneBs (5), shape (5) 20 

2. Trueness to type or variety; size (5), etiape (6), color (5), ekin texture (4), depth of 
eyes (5) 25 

3. Soundness; freedom from hollow center (5), toughness of skin (7) 12 

4. Vitality : strength of eyes (8) , frequency of eyea (5) 13 

5. Cooking qualities; color (6), texture (S), flavor (8), dryness (8) 30 

Rule. — Deduct J-^ to 1 point for every tuber badly off in any one feature. 
Disquahfy any that show scab, rot or bruise. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What can you say of the origin of Irish potatoes and of their name. 

2. What are the best types of soil for this crop? 

3. Give important points in fertilizing Irish potatoes. 

4. Describe the preparation of soil for a potato crop. 

5. What varieties of potatoes are used in your section for the early and late 

crops? 

6. Wliat can you say of the production and sources of seed potatoes for dif- 

ferent sections? 

7. Give directions for cutting potatoes for planting. 

8. How are they treated to prevent scab? 

9. Give method of sprouting them. 

10. What are the advantages of this? 

11. Discuss methods and rate of planting. 

12. Give directions for best cultivation. 

13. What spraying is usually necessary? 

14. What are the advantages of using a combined spray material? 

15. Discuss methods of harvesting. 

16. How may Irish potatoes be stored for winter use? 

17. Contrast the storage of sweet potatoes with that for Irish potatoes. 

18. Discuss soils and fertilizers for sweet potatoes. 

19. Describe the construction and management of seed beds for starting sweet 

potato plants. 

20. What are the chief methods of transplanting to the main field? 

21. How should the crop be cultivated? 

22. Discuss the time and methods of harvesting. 

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 533, Seed Potatoes, How to 
Produce Them; 544, Potato-Tuber Diseases; 753, Commercial Handling of 
Potatoes; 847, Potato Storage and Storage Houses; 868, Increasing the Potato 
Crop by Spraying; 970, Sweet Potato Storage; 999, Growing Sweet Potatoes; 
1020, Sweet Potato Weevil; 1050, Handling and Loading New Potatoes; 1059, 
Sweet Potato Diseases; 1064, Production of Late or Main Crop Potatoes; 
1091, Potato Shipping; 1190, How to Grow an Acre of Potatoes; 1205, Potato 
Production in South ; 1225, Potato Leaf Hopper. 

The Potato: Its Culture, Uses, History and Classification, by Wm . Steuart, 
J. B. Lippincott Company; The Potato, by Grubb and Guilford, Doubleday, 
Page & Company, The Potato, by Gilbert, The Macmillan Company. 



CHAPTER XIV 

'SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS FOR 
NORTHERN STATES 

It may be helpful to beginners as well as to others to arrange a 
number of suggestions regarding the care of the home garden and 
home grounds in the form of a monthly calendar. This may as 
well begm with January as with any other month. 

The calendar for northern states may differ materially from 
that for southern states. The latitude to be considered here is 
about that of New York, Chicago and westward. 

January. — Look over the supply of stored seeds and see that 
they are not being ruined by mice or weevils. Make plans for the 
spring planting and write for seed catalogues. 

Examine the flower pits and the vegetable pits and see that the 
winter weather is not injuring anything. A little extra covering 
may be necessary. 

Hardy plants stored in cdldframes should be examined to see 
that drainage is still good and that no harm is coming to the plants. 
Protect all places where wind is finding its way into the frames. 
Bank up with a little more manure or soil for extra protection. 

Watch the storage cellar and see that no injury is done by 
cold weather. 

See that plenty of manure is applied to the rhubarb and aspara- 
gus rows if this has been neglected in the fall. 

Indoor plants may be propagated at this season of the year. 
Make leaf cuttings and green-wood cuttings and start them in 
boxes of clean moist sand. Bulbs may be potted early in January 
and put in cold places to start their roots slowly. 

February. — Make all preparations for an early hotbed. See 
that the frame is in repair and the sash in good condition. Plans 
should be made for good horse manure at the time it is needed. 
Examine garden tools and implements and see that the metal 
parts are well oiled or covered with wagon grease to prevent dam- 
age from rust. 

Test seeds. Order the spring supply of seeds. 

The hotbeds should be started at least by the end of the month. 
Plant in them seeds of cabbage, cauliflower, beets, carrots, parsley, 
146 



APRIL 147 

onions, lettuce, spinach, and radishes. Mushrooms may be started 
in the cellar during February. 

If rhubarb roots were dug for forcing in the fall, they should be 
pushed along during January and February. Place them in a 
warm corner in the cellar and water them well. Strong succulent 
shoots will be very palatable now. 

Hardy annual flowers and others may be started, such as pan- 
sies, dahlia seeds, gaillardia, China aster, cobea, and canna. 

March. — Watch for a chance to prepare the soil in the garden 
this month. Many hardy plants may be started, such as onion 
sets, lettuce, radishes, hardy cabbage, potatoes, spinach, and 
peas if the weather proves to be favorable. Prepare the garden in 
every way possible. Think of all the things that have to be done 
and get ready for the spring rush. Drain the wet places in the 
garden, add manure here and there and add lime and wood ashes 
where needed. Have sand ready for starting nursery seeds. 

Make extra plantings in the hotbeds. Give the hotbed close 
attention and avoid burning out the plants. The weather is 
very changeable and much attention is required. 

The window boxes should be filled this month with transplanted 
plants such as tomatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, peppers and others. 
Perennial plants, such as asparagus, rhubarb and horse-radish 
may be transplanted this month. 

This is a good month in which to start a wild-flower garden. 
Many plants begin to show in the woods and can be taken up 
before they make too much growth. Ferns and other plants can 
be placed on the north side of buildings or in other shaded spots 
where other plants would not thrive. 

Bulbs of narcissus, tulips, and others started in January or 
February may be planted out this month. Sow hardy annual 
flowers out of doors. Plant pansies, sweet peas, and gladiolus seed. 

April. — This may be a good month for the general plowing and 
harrowing of the garden. Make additional plantings of the hardy 
vegetables mentioned last month. Plants of head lettuce, cabbage, 
cauliflower, and spinach may be transplanted to the open garden 
when the weather is favorable. The hotbed can be emptied 
enough to start seeds of cucumbers, squash, and melons in berry 
boxes or paper boxes for transplanting in May. Vines, trees and 
shrubs should be planted early this month if not before. It is 
also a good time for transplanting evergreens. 

The surplus products should be marketed if possible. Sell 



148 SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 

surplus plants from hotbeds, herbaceous plants from the flower 
garden, vmes, trees, shrubs, and harvests of asparagus, rhubarb 
and winter onions this month (Fig. 88). 

The permanent flower garden should be given much attention. 
Divide the large clumps of such perennial plants as phlox, larkspur, 
golden glow, and others. Trim out the dead tops of the old plants 
and give the bed a good cleaning up. After spading all bare spots, 
apply some manure as a mulch to keep the ground mellow and 
enrich it. 

May. — Probably the last spring frost will occur during this 
month. After that almost any of the vegetables may be risked in 



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Fig. 88. — The surplus products from the home garden and orchard should be marketed 
frequently directly to consumers in the town market. First day of Holyoke market. Com- 
pare with verify. (Massachusetts Agricultural College.) 

the open garden. Do not plant many hot weather crops until the 
soil is warm. Additional plantings should be made of such hardy 
crops as beets, peas, onions, lettuce, radish, and transplant more 
cauliflower, cabbage, and kohl-rabi to the open garden early in 
the month. 

The last of May is soon enough to risk tomatoes, peppers, corn, 
and beans in the open garden. 

Apply nitrate of soda or other nitrogenous fertilizer to the 
asparagus bed early in the month. Set forcing frames with glass 
tops over clumps of asparagus and rhubarb if they have not begun 
growth before the first of May. Fight cut-worms that are working 
abundantly in May. A paper collar around all transplanted plants 



JULY 149 

will keep them away. Watch for strong broods of plant-lice and 
spray with kerosene emulsion or with nicotine sulfate. 

Spring flowering shrubs may be pruned after the blossoming 
season is over. The sod on the lawn should be well rolled and the 
grass should be mowed as early as it is high enough. House plants 
may be removed to the open garden late this month and plunged 
in the ground or transplanted. It may be necessary to cover them 
if there is danger of frost. 

June, — All the hot weather crops, such as tomatoes, peppers, 
okra, cucumber, melons, pumpkin, squash, and all kinds of beans 
should be out this month. Make successive plantings every two 
weeks of snap beans, corn, and other vegetables which should be 
fresh for the table later in the summer. Work the garden thor- 
oughly to prevent weeds and to retain soil moisture. Provide 
stakes for the early tomatoes, prune them, and tie them up well. 

Spray potatoes with poison and Bordeaux mixture. This com- 
bined spray should also be applied to tomatoes and perhaps to 
the beans. Cucumbers and other vine crops may be sprayed 
likewise. Cover the joints of the vine crops with soil about two 
feet from the central roots so they will make extra rootings. This 
keeps them from suffering from the vine borers. Provide stakes 
for beans, tomatoes, and other plants requiring support. 

After the last cuttings of rhubarb and asparagus, make heavy 
applications of barnyard manure to start the growth well for next 
year. Spray the currant bushes if they are attacked with currant 
worms. Use Paris green or arsenate of lead. Watch for insect 
attacks in trees and shrubs everywhere. Fruit trees should be 
given their second spraying with Bordeaux mixture and arsenate of 
lead to prevent scab and rot. 

Carnations and chrysanthemums that have been started in-doors 
may be transplanted early in June to the open garden for their 
summer growth. Stake the tallest flowering plants to prevent 
them being broken by the wind. 

Tender annual flowers and also perennials may be started from 
seed this month. Annuals started in the coldframes, hotbeds, or 
window boxes should be transplanted to the open garden in June. 

The transplanting of potted plants, such as coleus, geraniums 
and many others should be attended to early in June if not before. 

July. — Insect pests must be watched closely. See if the melons, 
squash and cucumbers are free from their attacks. Remember to 
plant successions of wax beans, sweet corn, beets, carrots, and 



150 



SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 



others. This is a good month to set out celery plants for the 
fall crop. 

July is apt to be a dry month and watering must be attended to. 
Flood the ground with water rather than sprinkle it on top. 
Flower beds should have their share of water in dry weather. 

Keep the garden growing by frequent cultivation. Allow no 
weeds to take moisture and plant food which should go to the 
garden crops. (Fig. 89.) 

Keep the garden walks free from grass and weeds. (Fig. 90.) 




Fig. 89. — After the squash vines begin to cover the ground there is little use of trying to 
cultivate the soil. Pull out any tall weeds by hand and the small weeds will be smothered by 
the vines. (U.S.D.A.) 

August. — If any celery was planted in June it may be ready to 
begin blanching now. The early varieties should soon be ready 
for the table. See '' Methods " under the head of '' Celery Culture." 

Seed onions planted in early spring will probably be ready to 
harvest this month. When the tops begin to die the roots may be 
pulled or loosened. Thej^ may be left on top of the soil to dry for 
several days if the weather is favorable. Handle them carefully as 
you would eggs. Usually traj^s are good for this purpose. After 
they have thoroughly dried they are ready for long storage. 

Watch the cauliflower patch and tie up the heads that are ready 
for blanching. Try laying some broad leaves over the heads 
instead of tying up the leaves. You may prefer the tying method. 



SEPTEMBER 



151 



If you wish to force a few of the tomatoes to ripen earlier than 
the rest pinch off all blossoms after the first of August. Let only 
those that have set fruit remain on the plant. When tomatoes 
have reached their full growth they may be allowed to ripen in the 
shade instead of on the plants. Try a few this way. 

Remember you can plant fall crops this month. Quick growing 
vegetables such as peas, early cauliflower, spinach, head lettuce, 
radishes, kale, turnips, beets, and others may be planted early in 
August. If the fall proves to be short or a dry season, a number 
of these will not pay well but they are worth trying. 




Fig. 90. — A school garden with a wide central walk showing arches for vines. (Rhode 

Island Station.) 

September. — Remember this is likely to be the first frost month. 
Watch the vegetable garden and remove all tender vegetables 
before they are killed by the frost. Some vines may be allowed to 
die from frost and the crop harvested later. This is true of squash, 
pumpkin and sweet potatoes. 

Save some tomatoes by pulling up the vines laden with 
green fruit and hanging them in a shed or barn. The fruit will 
continue to ripen for several weeks. Green fruits may be covered 
and saved for future ripening. There are many uses of green 



152 SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 

tomatoes. Try making some " mince meat " with them. A number 
of fall crops may be started early in September such as head 
lettuce, spinach, kale, winter onions, radishes, and others. Other 
short season varieties of garden peas maybe started September first. 

Hotbeds and coldframes should now be put in order for use a 
little later. Start crops in coldframes by the end of this month. 

Wliile celery is going through the process of blanching, its 
growth should continue. The plumes project above the soil and if 
enough water is added the growth will make the crop much more 
tender. 

September is probably the best month for fall exhibitions of 
garden products (Fig. 91). This should be planned early so that 
all may be preparing for it during the summer. Prizes may be 
solicited and awarded at the exhibition. 

This is a good month for the sowing of grass on the lawns. If it 
does not germinate immediately, it will probably make enough 
growth before freezing weather to stand the winter. A httle 
mulch may be necessary later on. 

Look over the hardy border of wild flowers. Do such trans- 
planting as is necessary to prevent crowding and to improve the 
stand. This is a good month to search the woods for more peren- 
nial roots for this border. 

There are many perennials in the flower garden that need thin- 
ning and the fall is a good time for this work. Now they can be 
identified from the stems that remain standing. Look over the 
columbmes, golden glow, perennial phlox, larkspur, dahlia and 
others. Do all planting of seeds of perennials which are recom- 
mended for fall sowing. 

October. — The late crop of cabbage will need attention. Many 
of the heads tend to burst. To prevent this, bend over the tops to 
thoroughly check their growth. The late cauliflower heads may 
continue blanching if the heads are tied up. They stand the fall 
frosts well. On frosty nights protect the tender vegetables that 
still remain in the garden. The coldframes and hotbeds should 
be kept full with growing crops. Start more winter vegetables 
late in October. 

The asparagus bed should have its fall attention now. Mow 
off the stems, and plow the whole area with the turning plow. 
Apply six inches of manure over the rows. This is not a bad time 
to start new beds from seed sown last spring. Rhubarb may also be 
transplanted now. 



SCENES ON EXHIBITION DAYS 



153 




Fig. 91. — Scenes on exhibition days, out of doors. Garden products, and school work, 
are often combined. Prizes are awarded for exhibits and best gardens. The prizes may con- 
sist of shrubs, bulbs, books, gold, silver and bronze pins and cash. (Rhode Island State 
College Extension Department.) 



154 SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 

Beds of winter onions may be set early in October. Give them a 
little protection with straw or leaves as the winter advances. 

The sweet potato crop should be thoroughly dried by this 
month for storage through the winter. Parsley may be taken 
from the garden to continue its growth in coldframes or window 
boxes. 

Many of the garden flowers should be taken in before they are 
killed by frost. House pots and window boxes should be filled with 
carnations, chrysanthemums, and others that have spent the 
summer out of doors. Plant lily-of-the-valley, delphinium, 
hollyhock, iris and other hardy perennials. Ferns from the woods 




Fig. 92. 



-Students in a Minnesota high school doing the engineering work preliminary to 
tile drainage. (Minnesota Station). 



may be identified now and may be transplanted later but before 
the ground freezes. Label each kind and then remove the top 
entirely. 

Fall is the best season for draining land (Fig. 92) . Begin the work 
early enough to complete it before the rainy season begins. 

November. — Tliis is the best month for harvesting the fall 
crop of potatoes. A deep pit or vegetable cellar that does not 
freeze will keep them well. Bury potatoes, carrots and turnips 
after they have been piled in heaps on the ground. A foot of soil 
thrown over them and a heavy covering of straw or corn stalks 
may save them nicely. Parsnips and salsify may be kept in the 
same way or left in the garden rows to freeze. Their flavor is 



NOVEMBER 155 

improved by freezing but they are less accessible while the ground 
is frozen. The horse-radish maj^ be harvested this month. Select 
the small fingerlmgs for planting the next bed. The large roots 
may be grated and put in glass cans or bottles with a little vinegar. 

If the rhubarb and asparagus beds have not had their fall coating 
of manure, attend to it this month. 

Celeiy should be taken in just before the ground freezes. It can 
be transplanted to shallow layers of soil in the bottom of crates 
and packed tightly. These crates are set in cold cellars and 
blanching will continue if the soil is wet without wettmg the stems. 
Rubbish from the garden including vines, stems, and other waste 
should be added to the compost heap. A layer of sod, then a layer 
of manure, repeated, and the layers kept flat will make an excellent 
compost. Prepare it this month if possible. By spring it will be 
rotted enough to make a good ground soil for enriching the flower 
beds perennial shrubs and other places. 

Fall plowing should be done before the ground freezes. Heavy 
portions of the garden may thus be exposed to the winter frost and 
much improved for garden use. Any places that need under- 
drainage should be attended to in the fall. The soil is drier now 
than in the spring. Drainage work is therefore much easier. 

Do not leave dirt on the implements and tools. Clean them up 
well. Wash them if necessary to get them clean. Rub wagon 
grease on the metal parts. A coat of paint on the wooden parts 
will extend their life perhaps several years. Store them all away 
for use next spring. 

It is well to throw some litter over among all the perennials 
such as tuberoses, pansies and others. Manure over the beds of 
peonies, larkspur, and around the hardy roses and the climbing 
vines will protect the roots and add much nourislnnent for next 
year's growth. 

Bulbs that are to remain out all winter may be mulched with 
manure or lighter material about the time the ground begins to 
freeze. 

Did you ever plant sweet peas in the fall? Prepare a trench 
several feet long, make the soil very rich and plant the seeds about 
six inches deep. If this is done just before the ground freezes, no 
growth will take place until very early spring. They will be up 
ahead of spring-planted seeds and will be stronger because of the 
early start. 

Transplant some beautiful young evergreens into pots for the 



156 SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 

winter window. Also transplant cinerarias started from seed 
last summer. 

For Christmas blooms, start some lilies-of-the-valley, Roman 
and Dutch hyacinths, and Chinese lilies. Pot the bulbs and con- 
trol the temperature to suit the time you have left for forcing 
them into blossom. If they are kept cold several weeks before 
they are moved into a warm room they will be stronger but more 
time will be required to bring them into bloom. Give the carna- 
tions, chrysanthemums and other indoor plants close attention, 
loosening the soil at the top of the pots. Keep them well watered, 
guarding them as to temperature. 

December. — Let some of the turnips be set in damp soil in the 
cellar to form succulent sprouts for use in salads. They will 
be crisp as celery. Try starting some mushrooms in half-rotted 
manure under a bench in the cellar. Throw the spawn on the soil 
and water with warm water. The rotting of the manure will also 
help keep the soil warm and start the plants. If there should be 
enough cellar room, try keeping fresh plants for table use as they 
are needed. These may be growing in the south window in boxes of 
well watered soil. In this way we may have fresh grown onions, 
kale, cabbage, parsnips, carrots, salsify, rutabaga leaves, spinach, 
lettuce, and radishes. Do not try all of them at once. A few 
days may freshen up the plants for table use. 

When the ground has frozen, out-door crops, such as winter 
onions, kale, spinach, and others should have an abundance of 
litter thrown over and among the plants. 

If you are interested in forcing winter growth, the hotbed may 
be kept going and filled with many choice vegetables through the 
winter season. A deep coldframe with glass covering will serve 
the purpose for a number of the hardy plants above suggested for 
the cellar window. 

Give close attention to the needs of the plants growing in window 
boxes, in the coldframes and hotbeds. Some liquid manure or 
solutions of such fertilizer as nitrate of soda may be used when 
watering. For the plants which require less sunlight, provide a 
north window. Much sun is needed for geraniums, chrysanthe- 
mums, roses and some others. On the other hand, ferns, palms, 
dracaenas, vincas, begonias, and English ivy can endure more shade. 



CHAPTER XV 

SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS IN 
SOUTHERN STATES 

Rules for planting, harvesting, and other garden operations, 
are not so exact for the southern states because more time for each 
operation may be allowed. The seasons are longer except the 
winter season. More choice may be exercised in the matter of 
time for starting any of the crops. 

For the suggestions given here the latitude of thirty-three to 
thirty-four degrees is to be kept in mind. For regions farther 
north or south the dates may be varied to suit the location. In 
regions south of the frost line there is really no true winter. Here 
many of the plants usually started in the spring farther north are 
planted in December. This makes them ready for market and 
table use before spring gardens farther north are started. 

In many sections of the southern states, it is easy to grow vege- 
tables out of their normal season. This may be done in the home 
garden as well as in the market garden. The surplus from the 
home garden may then be marketed with more profit. 

JANUARY 

Vegetables. — Sweet potatoes are sometimes bedded in cold- 
frames or hotbeds by the last of January. In portions of the Gulf 
states they will be ready for the open garden in March or April. 
Make plans for the whole vegetable garden early in January. Let 
the garden work of all kinds begin as the season advances but 
never work without a plan. Remember the advantages of planting 
in long rows (Fig. 93) and make your plans that way. Get the soil 
in good condition before planting. If it is too wet, the use of the 
harrow a day or two in advance will cause it to dry out. Put a 
forcing box covered with glass on a few clumps of asparagus and 
rhubarb. The heat gathered from the sun may start them extra 
early. If the ground is not frozen much transplanting of perennials 
may take place this month. Set beds of rhubarb and asparagus. 
Some manure may be added to the asparagus beds with profit. 
The long sprouts coming through the thick cover will be stronger 
and whiter. 

157 



158 



SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 



If the weather is favorable risk a few of the less hardy garden 
crops out of doors. Garden pea seeds, onion seeds, parsnips, head 
lettuce plants, radish seeds, spinach seeds and plants, and turnip 
seeds and cabbage plants may all be tried out-doors near the last 
of January if the weather is at all favorable. Prepare the soil for 
the spring garden as soon as it is dry enough. The harrow will 
help warm it up and dry it out for the plowing. 




Fig. 93. — The long row plan used here, saves hand labor and economizes space. Broad 
hats make the graden work more endurable, when the sun is hot. (R. I. State College, 
Ext. Dept.) 

Flowers. — The house plants are the important part of the 
flower garden at this season. Give them all necessary care. Re- 
move the dead parts. Water the plants well. Most of them will 
respond to watering with liquid manure. Soak some horse manure 
or cow manure in a bucket of water. Use the liquid on the plants 
about once a week. Keep off all insects. The red spider and 
plant lice may be noticed if you look closely. Wash the leaves 
with strong soap water for lice, spider, and scale, or use other 
remedies for the special insects. 



FEBRUARY 159 

If the soil can be worked during this month, plant sweet peas 
where they will have plenty of sun. Make a trench and add some 
barnyard manure. Cover the seed about six inches deep. They 
will begin sprouting as soon as mild weather comes. Start dahlias 
of some of the new varieties or new colors from seed planted this 
month. They may be started in hotbeds or coldframes and trans- 
planted when danger of spring frost is over. Such plants would 
blossom the same year. Try perennial phlox, pansies, violets and 
other hardy perennials in the same way. 

A number of popular hardy flowers may be started in beds pro- 
tected from the cold wind and exposed to the warm sun. Try 
poppy, candytuft, hollyhock, larkspur, fox glove, snapdragon and 
allyssum. If these are started in cold frames they will grow better 
and will blossom in late spring and early summer. 

FEBRUARY 

Vegetables. — Use the hotbed to start tender vegetables from 
seed. It is not too early to plant tomatoes, eggplant, peppers, 
and others. The window boxes may be used instead of the hotbed 
for starting the seeds. Transplant them later to coldframes. 
Sweet potatoes may be bedded some time this month according to 
latitude. Irish potatoes should be planted in the open garden. 
Use an early variety and you may expect the harvest by the last 
of May or early June. Use Irish Cobbler, Early Triumph, or 
Early Rose. 

Rhubarb and asparagus may be transplanted early this month. 
Use very rich deep soil with plenty of manure. Some fingerling 
roots of horse radish should be planted this month if not before. 
The perennial garden herbs may be started this month from roots 
or seeds. Sage, thyme and summer savory are worth having in 
the garden. 

Plant small quantities of the earliest hardy garden vegetables 
some time in February. These include early garden peas, cabbage 
plants, cauliflower plants, parsnips, salsify, kohl-rabi, beets, 
radish and turnips. Celery seed should be started in the coldframe 
ready to set out later. 

If you wish to force some melons and cucumbers they may be 
started in berry boxes or pasteboard boxes in the hotbed the last of 
February. They do not transplant easily unless the dirt is kept 
with the roots as in the boxes. 

The area to be used for the late garden planting should be 



160 SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 

thoroughly plowed and harrowed. Keep the ground well stirred 
every week or two. 

Flowers.— Make your plans for the flower beds for the season. 
Some embellishment of the home garden by the use of flowers 
along with vegetable^ is sometimes planned. 

In the coldframes or hotbeds start seeds of a number of flowers 
such as petunias, pyrethrum, cyclamen, scarlet sage, Chinese 
primrose, verbenas, lobelias, heliotropes, and asters. Do not let 
the seedlings crowd too much. Several transplantings may be 
advisable. 

Start in coldframes cannas, dahlias, tuberoses, gladiolus, and 
calacUums. These should be ready to transplant to the open beds 
as soon as danger of frost is over. 

Hardy flowers started this month in the hotbeds may be trans- 
planted to the open garden by the last of February. Pansies that 
have been covered all winter should be uncovered now. Dig the 
soil around them and add some fertilizer or manure. Make the 
cuttings of chrysanthemums and carnations if these have not 
already been started. 

Start cuttings of coleus for bedding plants so they will be of good 
size for use in the garden after frost is over. 

Be sure to plant sweet peas and perennial phlox this month if it 
was not done earlier. 

MARCH 

Vegetables. — Transplant to the open garden the cabbage and 
cauliflower plants yet remaining in the beds. If the celery plants 
are large enough they may be set out now. In favorable seasons a 
few of the tender vegetables such as tomatoes, eggplants, peppers, 
and sweet potatoes may be set out, with a venture, in the garden 
now. Leave most of them until clanger of frost is over. 

Early in March make additional plantings of the hardy vegeta- 
bles, such as turnips, radish, lettuce, spinach, endive, garden peas, 
carrots, parsnips, mustard and salsify. More plantings of kohl- 
rabi and Brussels sprouts may be made this month. 

Before the ground begins to dry or become crusty the winter 
onions should be cultivated (Fig. 94). 

If the early potatoes are not yet planted, plant Irish Cobblers 
early this month. 

If the ground seems warm and the spring Is early, try a few 
tender vegetables by planting leeds of sweet corn, snap beans, 



APRIL 



161 



and others. These may be cut by frost and more plantings should 
not be made until danger of frost is over. 

Flowers. — Water the roses, beds of sweet peas, and other flowers 
that are out of doors. Rake the soil and keep it mellow. Work in 
some barnyard manure or water with liquid manure. This is the 
best month for planting many annual flowers such as marigold, 
nasturtium, petunias, phlox, 
poppy, cosmos, coxcomb, candy- 
tuft, balsam, alyssum, aster and 
verbenas. 

By the last of March you may 
be able to set out the roots of 
caladium, canna, dahlia, gladi- 
olus, and other tender bulbs. 
Put them in beds or borders 
where they are to remain dur- 
ing the summer. If late cold 
snaps occur, protect them well 
with coverings of leaves to avoid 
damage from frost. 

APRIL 

Vegetables. — If the season is 
not too dry nor too warm make 
additional plantings of peas, 
beets, spinach, lettuce, radish 
and early greens. This should 
be clone early in April. 

The tender vegetables may 
be put out now if danger of 
frost is over. Plant lima beans, 
snap beans, pole beans, black -eye peas, and other tender veg- 
etables. Risk a few tomatoes and when the weather becomes warm 
make the main plantings in the open garden. 

Sweet corn should be planted every two weeks to get a succes- 
sion of cropping. Country Gentlemen is one of the favored varie- 
ties of sweet corn. The latest plantings of the early varieties of 
cabbage and cauliflower may be set early this month. Late 
cabbage seed should be planted in beds ready for transplanting in 
May and June. They should not need protection in the beds but 
should be where they can be easily watered and cared for. 
11 




Fig. 94. — Cultivating the winter onions 
before the moisture escapes. The wheel cul- 
tivator makes it possible to grow the rows 
closer together. (Bateman Mfg. Co.) 



162 



SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 



Prepare the ground for the main plantmg of sweet potatoes 
which may be set late in April or early next month. (Fig. 95). 

This is a good month for planting peanuts and other warm 
weather crops in small quantities. Try a few of the melons and 
cucumbers out of doors. 

Flowers. — Rooted cuttings of chrysanthemums and carnations 
may be transplanted to the open garden. Put them in rows where 
they can be easily cultivated during the summer, with wheel hoes 
or horse cultivators. At least leave room for the garden rake 
between the rows. 

Many of the bed plants such as the tender bulbs that have been 




Fig. 95. — Cultivating the ground again before planting the crop. The soil was plowed 
in very early spring and harrowed frequently until planting time. This saved the moisture, 
caused weed seeds to sprout and be killed, and warmed the soil ready for the heme project 
crop. 

started in beds may be transplanted to the open garden this month 
when the danger of frost is over. Set out the cannas, caladiums, 
castor beans, dahlias, vincas, coleus, and others. 

By the end of the month set out house plants and make the 
open garden assume its summer dress. Geraniums grown in the 
window during the winter may be used as bedding plants during 
the summer. 

Plant more seeds of the flowering plants mentioned in the 
March group. Also start from seeds man}^ of the vines such as 
morning glory, Japanese bean, moon vine, wild cucumber, gourd, 
velvet bean, and others. 



MAY 163 

MAY 

Vegetables. — Remember to keep up a succession of plantings of 
lima beans, bush beans, and Kentucky Wonder pole beans. Other 
hot weather vegetables should be planted now if not before. 
Cucumbers and melons may be started out of doors from seed. 
Plant also seeds of squash and watermelon. Remember these vine 
crops should be kept apart to keep them from crossing. If the 
pollen is carried from one to another by bees and other insects 
the flavor will be affected. Use plenty of manure in each place 
where the seeds are planted. The harvesting of early vegetables 
may leave vacant places in the garden. Fill these in with the 
summer crops. 

Remember to keep a succession of plantings of corn for roasting 
ears. Sweet potato plants should be set out early this month. 

Seeds of cauliflower, late cabbage, collards, and Brussels 
sprouts may be planted in the open garden. Put a little lime at 
each place where the seeds are planted to mark the spots. This 
will help in the matter of cultivation. Weeds grow so quickly that 
frequent stirring of the ground is advisable. Use a number of 
seeds at each place and thin the plants afterwards. Set out all 
plants from the hotbeds and coldframes that are to make their 
growth in the open garden through the summer. Eggplants, 
sweet potatoes and tomatoes should be set in the garden now. 

The long season varieties of Irish potatoes may be planted early 
in May, such as Burbank, Carman No. Three, and Pearl or 
Peerless. 

If you have not started seeds of celery soak the seeds in warm 
water and plant them now in the coldframe. They may be trans- 
planted in July to the open garden for fall production. If you 
have large celery plants in the coldframe now they may be trans- 
planted to the open garden for the earliest crop. The garden rake, 
the wheel hoe or the horse cultivator should be used very frequently 
through this month as well as later. Keep the soil well stirred. It 
prevents weeds and saves moisture for the plants. 

Flowers. — Plant vines wherever they can be useful in hiding 
walls, unsightly places, etc. Seeds of all kinds of vines may be 
planted in the open now. 

All of the tender annual flowers may be sown in the orpen garden 
this month. This will avoid the necessity of transplanting. 

Use the rake around the flowers in all beds and borders. Never 
allow the soil to become crusty. A fine soil mulch is necessary for 



164 SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 

the best growth. If the weather should be dry at any tune, 
remember to water the flowers abundantly. Vigorous growth 
now means big shows of flowers later this season. Flood the soil 
rather than sprinkle it. The water will penetrate to greater depth 
and the roots will go deeper as the result. 

JUNE 

Vegetables. — This month we may plant the late cabbage, 
rutabaga and collards from seeds in the open garden as suggested 
last month. Make at least two main plantings of sweet corn. 

It may pay to plant a few more seeds of cucumbers, and canta- 
loupes. These will be bearing fresh crops when the early plantings 
are nearly dead from bearing heav;^^ crops. 

It is not too late to set more sweet potato plants. They will 
still produce a crop before frost. The same is true of tomatoes. 

It is important to keep all weeds out of the garden this month. 
They rob the crop of fertility and moisture. Frequent stirring of 
the soil will keep down the grass wliich tends to cover all the soil. 

Flowers. — If the weather is not too dry or if facihties for water- 
ing are available, sow more seeds of asters, nasturtium and 
zinnias. Keep these well watered and they will blossom in the fall. 

Make plans for the winter window boxes now. Pansies started 
from seed will be ready to transplant to the window boxes in the fall. 

Cultivate the carnations, chrysanthemums and other plants 
which you are growing out of doors for fall and winter blooms. 
Keep the buds picked off and prevent the plants using their 
strength for flowering in the summer if you want them to use 
in-doors later. A little liquid manure will stimulate the growth now. 

It pays to look over all the flower beds frequently and trim out 
the stems that are through flowering. It improves the appearance 
and saves the strength of the plants instead of ripening seeds. 

JULY 

Vegetables. — Early varieties of Irish potatoes such as Irish 
Cobbler, Green Mountam, and others may be planted in July. 
They will mature by the time the ground freezes and may be 
stored for winter use. If you have never grown a late crop of 
Irish potatoes successfully because of soils being too warm, try the 
straw mulch method. Plant the seed potatoes two or three inches 
deep in mellow soil and cover with four to six inches of straw, 
weeds, marsh hay, or other litter. This tends to keep the soil 



JULY 



165 



moist and cool and to prevent the growth of weeds. It saves all 
need of tillage. 

Make plans for the late tail garden. Much of the early garden 
may be harvestetl, the plants pulled, the space cleared and pre- 
pared for the fall garden. (Fig. 96.) Some of the vegetables may 
be planted now, spinach, curled Scotch kale, Norfolk kale, Cliinese 
and Japanese winter radishes, purple-top white turnips, rutabagas, 
dwarf Essex rape, English peas, beets, and others. 




Fig. 96. — Learning the lesson of rotation of crops. Deciding what crops may be cleaned 
out from the early garden to make more room for the fall crops. (U.S.D.A.) 

Late in July start seeds of Boston head lettuce to be trans- 
planted later for fall heading. 

This is probably the last month for the planting of snap beans. 
It is best to use the early varieties at this time. They should make 
their crop before the fall frost. Early in July lilant a few more 
seeds of cucumber and muskmelon. If these are forced by good 
culture and water, they should produce a yield before the first 
fall frost. It is still not too late to plant out seeds of cabbage, 
cauliflower and other {)lants of that group. They will continue 
growth after frost until the ground begins to freeze. This gives 
them the long fall season for heading. For the fall and winter 



166 SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 

garden plant seeds now of parsnips, salsify, and carrots. Freezing 
improves the parsnips and salsify, and carrots will endure some 
freezing. 

Did you ever start sweet potatoes by making cuttings from old 
vines? If not, try it this month. They will grow readily if well 
watered. They may yet produce a crop before frost. 

If the late celery crop has not been transplanted to the open 
garden, this is a good time to do it. Make the rows about four 
feet apart and set the plants four to ten inches apart according to 
the variety. 

Look over the whole garden for insect pests and plant diseases. 
Be sure to prevent damage from these sources. A hand sprayer 
with a few spray materials may be all that is necessary to save 
valuable crops. 

Flowers.— This is a good month in which to enjoy the blossoms 
of many of the beds, but remember that work is necessary for 
future blooming. Keep the plants growing well for the sake of 
future blooms. 

This is a good month to look for flower seeds. Save all kinds in a 
separate paper or envelope and label them properly. Seeds of 
cyclamen, primroses, and cineraria may be started in beds where 
they can be easily protected and cared for. These should be 
ready to transplant to the window boxes or pits for fall and winter 
blossoms in-doors. 

Do not allow insect pests to defoliate the roses just because 
they are no longer blooming. Keep plant lice off the nasturtium 
hydrangeas, and all other plants. Wash the leaves with soapy 
water, or spray with kerosene emulsion, or nicotine sulfate. 

AUGUST 

Vegetables. — August is often one of the driest months. The 
heat is so intense that the little rainfall does not remain long in 
the soil. Considerable watering of the garden may be necessary. 
A good plan is to turn on the water at night and let the ground 
be thoroughly soaked. The deeper the water penetrates, the more 
the roots will go down into the soil. 

Use the cultivator frequently. Someone has called this irriga- 
tion because it saves the moisture in the soil. 

Considerable sweet corn should be pulled, cut from the cob and 
dried for winter use. Many other vegetables may be dried for 



SEPTEMBER 167 

winter. Among them would be lima beans, pole beans, okra pods, 
peppers, cowpeas, soybeans, and others. 

Remember to save seeds for next year's planting. This month 
you can obtain fine specimens of many garden crops, such as 
tomatoes, sweet corn, okra, peppers, eggplant, watermelons, 
cantaloupes, and others. 

If plants have not been started for the fall garden, plant them 
this month. The hardy plants that endure frosts may be planted in 
August to remain during the long fall season. 

Flowers. — Geranium cuttings may be taken from the out-door 
plants and rooted in moist sand. After they are well rooted put 
them in rich soil, water them well, and they will be ready for 
potting at frost time. They should produce a show of blossoms 
during the winter in the windows. 

Seeds of a number of perennials, such as hardy chrysanthemums, 
pansies, larkspur, columbine and many others may be started in 
the open garden early in August. It will save about one year's 
time in waiting for them to bloom. Most of them will show blos- 
soms the next year. 

Water the flowers that are to give a fall show, such as chrysan- 
themums, carnations, scarlet sage, and cannas. Give them special 
attention in every way to make their growth thrifty and increase 
their ability to bloom. 

SEPTEMBER 

Vegetables — Early this month is the last chance for setting 
plants of celery, cabbage and cauliflower. Early varieties should 
be used so they will mature before winter. Plant more seeds of 
radish, lettuce and onions. Shallot onion sets may be put out 
this month in time for fall and winter growth. Sow fall green 
crops, such as turnips, kale, mustard, and dwarf Essex rape. Early 
in September plant a few seeds of carrots and beets, using early 
varieties. It is rather too late to make more plantings of beans, 
corn and very tender crops. As fast as these are harvested remove 
the plants and sow a cover crop of crimson clover, rye, and vetch to 
leave through the winter. The place should be thoroughly culti- 
vated before sowing seeds. If barnyard manure is available, a 
little of that may be applied at this time. 

Flowers. — Hardy annual flowers may be sown this month for 
use in window boxes during the winter. Remember that bulb 
planting time is coming soon. Make up lists from the garden cata- 



168 SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 

logs. If you did not make plantings of the perennial flowers in 
August, do it this month. They may make enough growth this 
fall to blossom next year if you care for them well 

This is a good month to transplant peonies, iris. Madonna lily 
bulbs, and a number of others that are through blossoming for 
the year. 

Late in September is not too early to start bulbs of hyacinth, 
chrysanthemums, and narcissus to be used in pots or winter boxes, 
during the winter. These should make some Christmas blooms. 

OCTOBER 

Vegetables. — Be sure to put out your winter onion sets and 
shallots this month. Sow more seed of winter greens such as 
spinach, kale, turnips and mustard. If the winter does not come 
on too soon, there may be time to mature another crop of lettuce 
and rachshes. At least these may be sown in coldframes late in 
October. A number of crops may be started in coldframes this 
month. A little protection will keep them growimg after severe 
weather stops the growth out of doors. 

Late in October is a good time to transplant rhubarb and aspar- 
agus. It is a good time to take up horse-radish and transplant 
the fingerlings to new places. 

If you wish to make use of the hotbed through the winter season, 
get everything ready. See that the sash is in good condition, 
repair the frame if necessary and have the manure ready to use 
late in October or in early November. 

The fall show of vegetables and other farm products may be 
held this month. Select the very best of your products. Help 
make a good exhibit even if you do not expect to win any prize 
(Fig. 97). 

Flowers. — Look over all the flower beds and select seeds for next 
year's planting. Put each kind in an envelope or paper and label it, 
showing the kind, color, etc. Plant more bulbs of hyacinth, tulips 
and narcissus. These will help form a succession of blooms next 
spring. 

A number of flower clumps may be taken up before frost and 
put in the window boxes for winter. Some of them may be put in 
coldframes or flower pits to be held until wanted in the windows 
later on. 

A number of the house plants that were set in the open last 
spring should be taken up now and repotted. Do not let them be 



NOVEMBER 169 

killed by frosts if they are tender. Trim them well, pick off the 
dead parts and give them the best soil you can find. 

After the frost has killed the beds of cannas and caladiums, the 
mature bulbs should be dug and dried in crates or stored in dry 
sand in the cellar. They should be kept from freezing during the 
winter. This is a good month in which to transplant violets, 
pansies, lily-of-the-valley, tuberoses and many others. The tall 
flowering stems of many perennial border plants should be re- 




FlG. 97. — Prize winning exhibit of vegetables and the producer. This boy knows how to 
produce good crops, and is skilful in selecting the products for market or for exhibit. (R. I. 
State College, Ext. Dept.) 

moved late in October. If you wish, transplant the roots at this 
time. Do not let them become too crowded. You can better 
remember what ones need moving now than you can next spring. 

NOVEMBER 

Vegetables. — If frost has not yet killed tender vegetables such as 
melons, tomatoes, late beans, and others, harvest their crops as 
rapidly as possible or protect them when the first frost comes. 



170 SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 

Tomato vines loaded with green fruit may be pulled and hung in 
the shade to ripen their fruits. Green tomatoes may be ripened 
off the vines if they are fully grown. 

Give the asparagus bed good attention this month. Mow the 
tops and let them be piled on the compost heap. Give the beds a 
heavy coat of barnyard manure to help the growth next spring. 
If this coating is several inches thick the new shoots will come 
through it and be large, long, well blanched, and tender. If you 
wish to transplant asparagus roots, this is probably the best time 
to do it. Rhubarb roots may also be transplanted now. If j^ou 
are going to grow some cabbage, cauliflower and celery in cold 
frames, have the plants ready and set them now if possible. They 
like the cool weather of November and will thrive if the ground 
does not freeze in the bed. 

You may yet plant onion sets but they may need protection of 
leaves or other litter when the severe winter weather is on. Lettuce, 
spinach, kale, and similar hardy plants may be stored in the hot 
bed or coldframe this month. They can be transplanted later to 
the hotbed as the winter weather becomes severe. 

Give the whole garden a general cleaning up after the first heavy 
frosts are over and the tender plants are through their work. 
(Fig. 98). Trellis stakes from beans and tomatoes may be tied in 
bundles and stored for next year. No litter should be burned. 
Keep it in a compost to rot and make humus for next year. Rye 
may be sown in November as a winter cover crop on all bare spots 
in the garden. 

Flowers.^ — Late this month sow seeds of sweet peas to remain 
dormant until spring. If they are planted six or eight inches deep 
they are not likely to sprout this fall. Make plantings of hyacinth, 
narcissus and tulip bulbs. These will not start this fall but will be 
ready for early spring blooming. 

Protect the late flowering plants out of doors on frosty nights. 
Keep them beautiful out of doors as long as you can. 

DECEMBER 

Vegetables. — This is probably the best time to harvest the late 
garden vegetables such as Irish potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, 
the main crop of celery, etc. Store them for winter use. Put 
cabbage heads with their roots upward in rows two or three layers 
deep and cover with soil about the time the ground freezes. Cover 



DECEMBER 



171 



the soil with heavy layers of corn stalks to keep the rain from 
washing off the soil. Transplant celery to shallow layers of soil in 
deep crates. Keep them well watered without wetting the stems. 
If these are started in the cellar they will continue growth and be 
nicely blanched and tender when wanted for table use. 

Protect the winter hardy crops such as winter greens, winter 
onions, etc., and let them remain out of doors through the winter. 
A light coat of leaves or similar litter may be enough. 

Plan to use the hotbeds and keep them well filled with growing 
crops. Seeds of cabbage, cauliflower, radish, lettuce and a number 




FiJ. 98. — The cleaning up season is In re. 1 'h m ■ - .ts are tied in bundles, old vines 
and stalks are raked together and left to rot in a compost. It is best to never burn the garden 
wastes. They will make good manure and humus in the soil. (Photo from R. I. State Col- 
lege, Ext. Dept.) 

of greens may be started in coldframes now and transplanted 
later to the hotbed. 

Parsley may be transplanted from the garden now and put into 
window boxes for use in the kitchen as needed during the winter. 

Before the ground freezes, take up some large strong clumps of 
asparagus and put them in boxes in the cellar. Do the same with 
rhubarb roots. These can be used for forcing during the severe 
weather of January and Februaiy. 

Flowers. — This is the latest month for the starting of winter 
bulbs. They will be late enough if started early in December. 
Some of the bulbs can be planted out of doors at any time when 
the ground is not frozen. 



172 SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK BY MONTHS 

Sweet peas may also be planted out of doors if the ground is in 
condition to be worked this month. Tliis is the best month for a 
show of chrysanthemums. Stake the long stems well, water the 
soil and protect them from attacks of plant lice and red spider. 

Cyclamen and cmceraria plants started in the summer may be 
potted now for blossom in-doors. 

Before the ground freezes take up a number of the beautiful 
flowers fi'om the garden and put them in a flower pit or cold- 
frame for storage until they are wanted for winter blossoming in 
the house. 

Jb lower Planting Plan. — Make a plan for^ planting flowers along borders, 
walks, and in corner beds,for the home place. Make lists of varieties to plant, 
arranging them according to colors, season of blossoming, and heights of growth. 
Use floral catalogs and other available lists. (See Farmers' Bulletin 1171). 
Include bulbs, annual flowering plants, and perennial herbs. Use ferns and 
other shade-loving plants where best suited. 

Flower Planting Calendar. — Make a table to show dates for planting and 
dates for blossoming of flowers to suit your region. Arrange these in order of 
dates to use in planting. 

Local Seasonal Suggestions. — For each of the twelve months, select or 
make the leading suggestions for your home place: (1) for vegetable garden 
work, (2) for flower garden work. 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 

A GOOD home orchard is an attraction and material asset to any 
home, whether in the village or in the open country. We should 
think of the orchard as including the tree fruits, such as apple, 
pear, quince, peach, cherry, plum, etc. The last three are con- 
sidered in the next chapter. In Florida and southern California 
we would include in the home orchard the grape fruit, lemon and 
orange. A study of the maps in this and the following chapters 
will be of interest (Fig. 99 and 100). 

APPLE 

Location and Exposure of the Apple Orchard. — The grower 
should not be discouraged if he has not the best location for the 
apple orchard. The exposure should not be toward the westerly 
winds if that can be avoided. A north or north-east slope is better. 
This will keep the soil cool in the spring and prevent the warm 
days from forcing the trees into blossom so early as those on a 
southern slope. The earliest blossoms are in greatest danger from 
late spring frosts. 

One of the most important considerations in the location of the 
apple orchard is the finding of a slope and putting the orchard 
near the top of it. This will give air drainage, which is the best 
protection against damage from late spring frosts. When frosty 
nights occur the cold air settles in the low places, and blossoms 
are often damaged here when those at the top of the hill are 
uninjured. 

If possible, locate the apple orchard near enough the farm 
buildings so that it can be easily watched. Not only does the 
orchard need protection from human marauders at fruiting time, 
but it should be under the eye of the owner so that he will give it 
better protection against insect enemies and plant diseases. Fruit 
trees along the roads may satisfy those who would otherwise enter 
the orchard. They may also supply some fruit for home use. 

Apple Soils. — In well settled regions the experience of the 
older residents will tell whether the soil is suited to the growth of 
apple trees. If trees have made a vigorous growth their size taken 

173 



174 THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 

Fig. 99. 




UNITED STATES 
APPLES 

TREES or BEARING AGE 

APPROXIMATE ACREAGE 
EACH DOT REPRESENTS 500 ACRES 



Fig. 100. 




UNITED STATES 

PEARS 

TREES OF BEARING AND 
NOT OF BEARING AGE 

APPROXIMATE ACREAGE 
EACH DOT REPRESENTS 100 ACRES 



Fig. 99. — Apple trees of bearing age. Approximate acreage, 1910. Over 93 per cent of 
this acreage was in the eastern portion of U. S., the acreage in any one of the five leading 
states — New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan or Missouri, exceeding that of the entire 
western half of the United States. 

Fig. 100. — Approximate acreage of pear trees in the United States. The largest centers 
of production are located in eastern Maryland, Delaware and southern New Jersey, in west- 
ern New York, southern Michigan, in the .Sacramento and Santa Clara Valleys, Cal., the 
Rogue River Valley, Ore., the Yakima Valley, Wash., and the Grand Valley, Colo. 



VARIETIES FOR THE HOME APPLE ORCHARD 175 

into consideration with their age will tell the tale. In poor apple 
soils the growth will be meager or poor. Soil also mfluences the 
length of life of apple trees. Medium loams and heavy loams are 
to be preferred to the light sandy soils for apples. The soil does 
not need to be extremely rich, but a moderate degree of fertility is 
desired. 

Varieties for the Home Apple Orchard. — Nurserymen speak of 
the varieties of apples under three heads, depending on their 
season of ripening — summer, fall and winter varieties. If the 
grower intends to have a surplus of apples for market he ought to 
be careful to have enough of one or two varieties rather than a 
few of a great number of varieties. When the orchard comes into 
bearing one of the most harassing tilings which will confront the 
grower is to spray and otherwise care for varieties which blossom 
and ripen at different times. This task will be greatly simplified if 
he has only a few varieties to demand his attention at spraying 
time, picking time, etc. 

In theory the home orchard which is not to have any fruit for 
market may have a great number of varieties with only a tree or 
two of each kind. This sounds ideal, because the tastes of different 
members of the family at different seasons will be gratified and 
fruits for all purposes will be produced. 

On the other hand, apples of many varieties will shed their 
petals at different seasons and require spraying to fight the codling 
moth at as many different times. The close attention which this 
mixture will require may cause the spraying to be neglected or 
even abandoned in busy seasons. Another point about having too 
many varieties is that there may not be enough trees blossom 
during the same time to pollinate each other. A study of a table 
of blossoming dates at the time of selecting varieties should settle 
this point before the orchard is planted. 

A good list of varieties for the home orchard will include one or 
two good standard varieties of summer apples, one or two of the 
fall varieties and the list should include good winter keepers. 
Perhaps three of the winter varieties of keepers will be enough. 
If we bring this plan down to its simplest form we might have one 
summer variety such as Duchess, one fall variety, such as Grimes 
Golden or Mcintosh Red, and one variety of winter apple such as 
Winesap or Newtown Pippin. 

In choosing the varieties for any region study the results of 
trials made by other growers. No general recommendation can be 



176 THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 

made which will include all regions and all soils. The glowing 
descriptions in catalogs, or those made by tree agents should not be 
taken to mean that the varieties are well suited to the region. 
There are many things to be considered in the choice of varieties: 
(1) Does the fruit hold on well? (2) Do they withstand bitter rot 
and other varietal diseases? (3) Do they grow to good size on these 
soils? (4) Do they keep well? (5) Do they yield well? (6) Do 
they bear regularly? (7) Does the tree make a thrifty growth? 
(8) Are the trees long lived? (9) Do the fruits stand handling? 
(10) Are the apples of good quality? The last point may be the 
sole subject of the discourse of a tree agent. If the variety falls 
down on all the other points, or any of them, the tenth point will 
not overcome the difficulties. 

Write to your state experiment station and get a list of varieties 
recommended for planting in your region. 

Planting the Apple Orchard. — Apple trees become so large when 
full grown that they must be planted at distances varying from 30 
to 40 feet apart each way. If they are started at half these distances 
three-fourths of the trees will have to be cut out to prevent too 
much crowding. This thinning of the trees in an apple orchard is 
difficult because each tree is considered so valuable when it is 
large and is bearing fruit that the grower does not "have the 
heart" to cut the trees. 

Inter-cropping with other trees such as peaches or pears or 
plums is sometimes practiced. If the apple trees are planted 40 
feet apart each way and the peach trees are planted half way 
between them in the same rows and an extra row of peaches 20 
feet apart is planted between each two rows of apples, this will 
make 27 apple trees per acre and three times that number or 81 
peach trees, making a total of 108 trees to the acre. 

Plan of Planting. — The rectangular plan of laying out the orchard 
is most common. Two lines running from one corner are estab- 
lished with stakes. Enough stakes are placed along these two 
lines to establish the rows in both directions. By measuring with a 
pole from the stakes in these two lines it is easy to locate all of the 
balance of the trees in the orchard (Fig. 101). 

If a stake is driven where each of the trees is to be planted it is 
easy to sight along these rows of stakes and straighten the row if 
necessary. As each stake is removed by the digger when making 
the hole for the tree it is necessary to mark its location before it is 
lifted out. This is done by using a planting board as shown in 



PRUNING BEFORE PLANTING 17T 

figure 102. Two stakes are placed in the line of stakes to suit the 
length of the planting board. The notch at its center is held on 
the stake where the trees is to be planted until the other two 
stakes are driven in place. Then the stake is removed and the 
hole may be dug. When the tree is planted the notch on the plant- 
ing board will locate the trunk of the tree exactly. 

Heeling in Trees. — When trees are received from the home 
nursery or by shipment from a distance, a trench should be dug in 



Fig. 101. — Plan for setting an orchard. X's are stakes set at right angles along two sides. 
The places for all other trees, O, are easily obtained by measuring with two poles from adja- 
cent stakes. 

the orchard and the roots immediately covered with soil. The 
bundle should first be cut apart so that the soil will come in contact 
with all the roots well. Care must be exercised to avoid the labels 
being lost or the varieties mixed. If necessary each variety can be 
placed by itself in a separate trench or hole (Fig. 133). 

Pruning before Planting. — The holes should first be dug, and 
when everything is ready for planting the trees may be taken up 
and pruned before planting. Cut off all the broken roots and trim 
away any diseased or injured parts. Prune the top somewhat 
severely so as to balance the loss of roots occasioned by the digging. 
One-year-old trees have buds throughout, and the pruning will 
be simply cutting off all the top down to a height of abouttwo feet. 
12 



178 THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 

Two-year-old trees are much more difficult to handle m this 
regard. The buds are on only the last season's growth, and good 
judgment must be exercised to decide which old branches should be 
left. It is often impossible to make a low-headed tree when two- 
year-old nursery trees are being planted. Try to leave such 
branches as will balance the head of the tree when these become 
the main head limbs. If the branches are the same height on the 
main shaft of the tree they will tend to split, and the tree when 
loaded with fruit will be seriously injured. 

Height of Head. — When the main branches start out near the 
ground the tree is said to be low-headed. If the trunk is three or 
four feet below the main branches the tree is called high-headed. 
(Fig. 103.) 

Many orchardists now head trees low at planting time. This 



J 



A 



^ 



Fig. 102. — A planting board used as shown makes it eas y to place the tree exactly where the 
stake was placed for it. 

makes them easier to spray and prune; the fruit is easier to harvest, 
and the trees are less apt to split and break in heavy winds or 
when loaded with fruit. Cultivation near the trees is more difficult 
unless special implements are used. Compare the trees shown 
here as to height of trunks, figures 103, 104, 109, 110, 111. 

Planting an Orchard Tree. — The hole for the planting of a tree 
should be considerably larger than the area covered by the roots. 
It should also be deep enough so that some of the best soil may be 
thrown back into the hole before planting. The tree should also be 
set an inch or two deeper than it was in the nursery. After getting 
the tree in its exact position throw some of the best soil over the 
roots and tramp this firmly in place. If any manure is to be added 
it should be put above this and not too close to the tree. Only a 
little manure for each tree should be used at planting time. When 
filling in the balance of the soil tramping occasionally is best. 
Leave some loose soil on top to form a mulch and prevent evapora- 



INTER-CROPPING 



179 



tion. It is necessary to have the soil well firmed against the main 
trunk so that it will not be blown over by the wind. A little 
manure may be used on top of the soil. It serves as a mulch, 
and the nourishment will be leached into the soil gradually by 
rains. 

Culture of the Young Orchard. — If the orchard is on a hillside 
the soil may be plowed toward the rows so as to leave a terrace 
for each row of trees. This will require a reversible, or hillside 
plow. The soil between the rows should be thoroughly cultivated 
at least during the first half of its growing season. If the land is 
only slightly sloping a common turning plow may be used each 




Fici. lu: - 'Piei-s with high heads and long trunks need propping more than an low headed 
trees. Thinning the fruit would alsj save some of the propping. 

spring. Follow with a disk harrow and spiketooth harrow. The 
latter may be used several times in the season. 

Inter-cropping.— The most economical plan is to have crops 
growing between the rows, such as potatoes, beans, beets, or any 
garden crop which requires frequent tillage. These crops will 
make use of the land which the young trees do not cover, and their 
presence will require the grower to cultivate the trees sufficiently. 

It is not good practice to plant young orchards on grass land 
without thorough cultivation. After the trees have become older 
and have produced a few good crops the plan of allowing a sod 
to form in the orchard is more excusable. Clean cultivation has 
proved to be the best method so far as yields and quality are 
concerned. 



180 THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 

Winter Cover Crops.^In the last half of the summer a cover 
crop may be sown, provided the inter-crop is out of the way. If 
early potatoes, for example, are grown between the rows this crop 
may be harvested and the soil then disked and sown with a cover 
crop. One of the best mixtures for northern states is rye and 
winter vetch. In the central and southern states crimson clover 
may be added to this mixture. Use one bushel of rye and one 
peck of vetch and one-half peck crimson clover per acre. 

Green Manuring and Fertilizing. — In the spring after the winter 
cover crop has had time to make a spring growth the crop may be 
turned under as green manure. The soil should then be disked 
and the annual inter-crop may be planted. The best time to ap]ily 
commercial fertilizer is just after the first spring plowmg. The 
fertilizer then added will help the inter-crop and also help the 
orchard trees. A well balanced fcrtihzer may be mixed at home to 
suit the soil requirements. While the orchard is young some fer- 
tilizer rich in nitrogen should be used. After the trees are of 
bearing age, omit most of the nitrogen and add more phosphate 
and potash. The quantity to be added will depend on whether 
or not the soil is naturally fertile. 

Pruning the Orchard. — Much of the vigor and health of the 
orchard depends upon the annual jiruning. Most of this work will 
be done in the winter when other farm work is less pressing (Fig. 
104). But some light pruning in midsummer is valuable, partic- 
ularly with young trees. Pruning the orchard is as important as 
spraying, cultivating, or fertilizing. 

Figure 105 shows the fruit spurs of the apple tree. In pruning 
old trees we should be careful not to remove such spurs. There 
are a number of points to be remembered by the operator while 
doing the annual winter pruning. 

1. Remove all dead or diseased parts and burn these if affected 
with blight or other serious disease. 

2. Cut out broken limbs. 

3. Prune out all those twigs which strike across the body of 
the tree. 

4. When two or more limbs extend along the same line or 
closely parallel each other, prune away the less vigorous. 

5. Thin the head of the tree enough to admit plenty of light 
and air to all parts. Never allow crowding in the tree top. 

6. Cut back some of the new growth on young trees or on any 
that grow rapidly. A third or a half of such growth is often pruned 
back. 




/> 



ylH 







Fig. 104. — A li^lit i.i unin^ ,mc1i umii-i kci-ps Ui.^ liuiue ■in.-liurd tiees within bounds. The 
winter cover crop of rye makes the work more pleasant and benefits the soil. (Indiana 
Station.) 




Fig. 105. — Fruit spurs of apple. A to 4, shows one year's growth marked by the rings 
or scars of the terminal bud scales. B, shows where fruit was attached; the number of crops 
may be counted. The fruit buds, C, are downy and are larger than shoot buds, £>• (Indiana 
Station.) 



182 



THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 



7. Make all cuts close to 
the axis, (Fig. 106). Never 
leave a stub to die and cause 
disease. 

8. Make all cuts as smooth 
as possible and paint the 
wounds of large cuts, to pre- 
vent decay. 

9. Avoid cutting large limbs 
if possible. This may be done 
best when annual pruning is 
diligently followed. 

Thinning Fruit. — Figure 
107 shows young apples be- 
fore and after thinning. This 
work is done when the fruit is quite small. The clusters are re- 
duced to single fruits. Removed fruit may be dropped to the 
ground to be eaten by pigs. 





Fig. 106. — Good and bad pruning contrasted. 
Cut close when removing large limbs. Cut from 
the under side first to prevent splitting down 
the bark. 




Fig. 107. — Gano apples, before and after thinning. It takes courage to thin fruit, but the 
size is increased enough to pay. (Ohio Station, Newark.) 

The objects of thinning are (1) to prevent the spread of rot or 
other disease of the fruit ; (2) to increase the size and quality of the 



IRRIGATION IN DRY CLIMATES 



183 



fruit left on the trees; (3) to induce the tree to bear a good crop 
annually instead of every other year; (4) to save work at harvest 
time in picking and sorting low grade fruit. 

Dwarf apple trees are neither a fad nor a novelty. But they 
are not usually considered commercially profitable in America. 
Almost any variety of apple can be made to grow well on dwarfing 
stocks as Paradise or quince. The trees will then come to 
bearing much younger (Fig. 108). They may be planted as close 




Fig. 108.— An orchard of dwarf apple trees four years old. (New Jersey Station.) 

as seven to nine feet apart each way. The fruit is not changed in 
size or otherwise by the dwarfmg. The trees are more expensive 
than standard trees and many more are required to set an acre. 
While the yield per tree is much less, the yield per acre is not as 
much reduced as might be expected. 

Irrigation in Dry Climates.— ^In arid regions of the western 
states and elsewhere irrigation of orchards is necessary. Water 
may be applied to the soil in a number of ways. Far the most 
conmion method is to plow furrows between rows as shown in 



184 



THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 



figure 109 or to have the furrows cross the orchard along lines that 
are nearly level. Water is turned into the furrows from head 
ditches as desired. 

One day or a few days after watering, the soil should be tilled to 
conserve the moisture and to prevent baking and cracking of the 
surface. A harrow of some type to suit the texture may be used 
for this purpose. 

The soil should be thoroughly watered several times during the 
growing season. 

Renovating Old Orchards. — On many farms there are old 
orchards of apples and other fruits that should be renovated. If 




Fig. lU'J. 



riie furrow method of irrigating orchards and gardens, used in dry climates. 
(Photojby Gagnon, Wenatchee.) 



the trees are not too nearly dead, and if enough of them are still 
standing to fill the area fairly well, they may warrant some 
work and expense of renovating (Fig. 110). 

Steps in Renovation. — Four or five steps are necessary in reviv- 
ing an old neglected orchard. 

1. Pruning is always necessary, but there is danger in pruning 
too heavily at one time, for it may cause a very rank growth of 
new wood and thus delay the bearing of fruit for some years. No 
harm can come from cutting away all the dead or unhealthy 
parts (Fig. 111). Beyond this do not thin the limbs too much. 



STEPS IN RENOVATION 



185 



2. Cultivate the soil by plowing shallow at first and deeper 
afterward. In orchards where such tillage is possible the effects 
will be very beneficial. 





tit.. 110. — Au .'M IWiMwui ipn'li;iril uflcr being rejuvenated by pruniiig, spraying,, culti- 
vatini; and fertilizing. (Courtesy of F. C. Sears.) 




Fig. 111.— a lesson in rejuvenating an old apple tree. 8uch work ia necessary onlv after 
much neglect. (New Jersey Station.) 

3. Fertilizing the soil to feed the trees must be done with 
judgment. Use considerable stable manure or nitrogenous fertil- 
izer if the growth of leaves and new wood show lack of vigor (Fig. 



186 



THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 



112). If this growth is likely to be sufficiently stimulated by 
pruning and cultivation, omit most of the nitrogen but feed the 
trees with phosphate and potash. 

4. Spraying is always necessary in a neglected orchard. Follow 
a good annual spraying campaign as given in a later chapter. 

5. Working over the trees to change the variety to a more 
valuable kind is sometimes advisable. This takes more time and 
delays the results longer than the four preceding operations. For 
methods of grafting and budding old trees see Chapter VI. (Fig. 113) 

Harvesting the Apple Crop. — Some varieties of trees will bear 
after five or six years, while others will require several years more 





Fig. IIJ. — \\'iiLn corn or other crops are grown .u i 1.1 ..n hards the trees niay be starved 
and diseases of foliage are commonly luuud. ^Ohio Station.) 

for their development. Too often the fruit is allowed to drop to 
the ground and is gathered after it has been injured by falling. 
On the market wind-fall fruits are considered as culls and are 
hardly worth handling. They are so badly bruised that they will 
not keep long and the bruised side at least has to be wasted by the 
consumer. The rot started by the bruising soon destroys the 
whole fruit. 

Pick fruits from the tree when they are nearly mature, and keep 
them in suitable places until used or sold. A good plan for picking 
is to use a half bushel basket with strong, rigid handles which can 
be suspended on the left arm or may hang from a hook on the 
ladder. This basket should be lined with a heavy bag or cloth. 



KEEPING THE CROP 187 

As fast as the basket is filled the picker descends to the ground 
and carefully transfers the fruit to boxes or barrels. 

The ladder used for picking from large trees may consist of a 
main shaft split open for the lower six feet. The rounds or steps 
are put through these two forks; where the shaft is single, the 
steps extend through it, and are curved upward to keep the 
man's feet from slipping. The top of the ladder rests against the 
outer branches of the tree and is more stable than a common 




Fig. 113. — Two steps in working over an old apple tree by cleft grafting cions of a better 
variety. The success of this work depends upon an even growth and good union of the woods 
of stocks and cions. Budding on smaller twigs is more successful. 

step ladder. For small trees a common step ladder eight or ten 
feet in length may be used. 

The fruit should be removed from the tree twig by a twisting 
motion, or by placing the thumb nail at the end of the apple stem. 
Care should be exercised not to remove the fruit spurs with the 
fruit. It is a bad practice to allow the apple stem to be pulled out 
from the apple cavity. This is likely to start fruit rot, and the 
fruit will not keep so well in storage. 

Keeping the Crop. — Summer varieties are usually not held long. 
They are intended for immediate use, and the surplus should be 



188 THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 

sold as soon as harvested unless it is wanted for home use. The 
advantage of growing summer varieties is that the price may be 
better at that season and storage will not be necessary. 

Fall and winter varieties are usually held for some weeks or 
months. The winter varieties are always better keepers than the 
fall varieties. The latter can not be kept long except in cold 
storage. One of the best home storage places is a cellar where the 
fruit will not freeze and where it will not dry out too much. The 
apples may be placed in barrels or boxes, closed up well and placed 
in the cellar until needed for market or for use. The barrels are 
opened and the fruit that is going to market is carefully repacked. 




Fig. 114. — A convenient packing table with loose burlap bag top, used in sorting fruit and 
packing boxes. (Indiana Station.) 

Fruit stored in apple boxes will bring better prices than that stored 
in barrels. This must, however, be sorted well and be of uniform 
color and size. For systems of .packing barrels and boxes for 
market see Sears' Productive Orcharding. 

Figure 114 shows a good form of sorting table which may easily 
be made at home. 

Figure 115 shows a compression clamp for use in closing apple 
barrels. Such a device greatly reduces the damage to apples m 
barrels when shipped by rail or by truck. 

Figure 116 shows two methods of packing apples in boxes to 
secure uniform and good results. Figure 117 shows how the fruit 
is wrapped with stamped papers. 



VARIETIES 



189 




PEAR 

A number of points which have been discussed under the head of 
the apple will apply here. Nothing more need be said regarding 
the location and exposure or the culture of the pear orchard. 
The methods of planting and pruning are also similar. 

Soils. — For the pear we 
would prefer to use the very- 
heavy soils, at least the pear 
will endure heavier soils than 
almost any other fruit. 

Pruning. — Pear trees should 
be regularly pruned each year. 
Follow the general directions 
for prunmg given for the apple. 
In many cases it will be neces- 
sary to cut back some of the 
new growth as shown in fig- 
ure 118. 

Varieties. — Pears differ 
widety in their keeping and 
eating qualities and in their 
resistance to disease. Those 
should be selected for planting 
wliich are most suited to the 
locality. Before planting con- 
siderable inquiry should be 
made concerning the varieties 
which stand blight in the local 
soils. Also find which ones 
will bear best and which trees 
live longest in the local soils. 

Along with these matters 
should be considered the ques- 
tion of quality. Some pears, 
such as Seckel are of very high 
quality and are suitable for 
eating out of hand. The Bart- 
lett is of good quality and yet is often attacked by twig blight. 
The Kieffer is considered one of the poorest in quality, yet is one 
of the best keepers, and is often least subject to attacks of diseases. 

Select onlj^ one or two varieties of pears for the home orchard. 



Fig. 115. — Press and clamp for "heading" 
barrels of apples. When fruit is packed with 
some pressure the damage from shipment is 
reduced. 



190 



THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 



Too often the surplus fruit is unmarketable. When the season is 
favorable other fruits such as apples will readily take their place on 
the market and the price of pears is comparatively low. 

Harvesting the Fruit. — Pears are more subject to damage by 
bad handling than apples. The fruit should invariably be picked 
before it is soft. As soon as the pears are full grown they should be 
carefully removed by hand and laid in single layers in baskets 
lined with cloth. They should then be placed in single layers in 
crates, covered and kept in a dark cellar or sunilar place. They 




liG. 110. — i uij iiiciliixis ui packing apples in boxes. At left, start of 2-2 diagonal pack. 
The box holds four layers of 24 apples each. At right, start of 3-2 diagonal pack, with small- 
er apples. The box holds five layers of 33 applee each. They are placed in layers in the 
order in which they are here numbered. (Indiana Station.) 

will ripen readily in the dark and will attain highest flavor and 
best quality. When ripened in the dark they have less of the 
gritty tissue in the flesh of the fruit. 

Many varieties of pears are not suitable to store, but should be 
consumed, marketed or canned as soon as they have reached 
their highest perfection. 

QUINCE 

This fruit is not commonly grown in the home orchard. A few 
trees will supply the needs of the family. 



CULTURE OF THE QUINCE 



191 



The fruit is rich in jelhng 
properties, but somewhat in- 
sipid in flavor. It is therefore 
usually mixed with other fruits 
for canning or jelling, but is 
seldom used alone. 

Culture of the Quince. — The 
trees or bushes are small and 
may be grown at a distance of 
only ten feet or so from each 
other. The roots are very shal- 
low and therefore the quince 
may be grown in soil where the 
water level is not very deep 
below the surface. The trees 
do not prefer wet places, but 
they will endure such places 
better than other orchard fruits. 

The methods of planting are 
similar to those mentioned for 
the apple. In pruning, however, special methods are used. The 
quince is really a bush, as there are usually a number of main shoots 
or branches coming from or near the ground. This fact allows it to 




Fig. 117. — Fancy apples are often packed 
in boxes holding almost one bushel. The 
"3-4" pack here shown is used only for small 
apples. The "2-3" is more common. Wrap- 
ping prevents bruising and makes the fruit 
keep longer. 




Fig. 118. — Winter pruning of Keiffer pear trees after they were neglected for 

(New Jersey Station.) 



a few years. . 



192 THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 

be propagated by mound layering already described in an earlier 
chapter. The annual prunmg consists chiefly of removing any 
dead or diseased parts, thinning the head to allow the entrance of 
enough sunlight and remove the branches which tend to rub 
against each other. The general shape of the head should also be 
controlled by the proper pruning of the outer branches. 

SURVEYS, PROJECTS, AND EXERCISES 

1. Orchard Exposures. — Send a few questions to each home of tlie region 
'to determine the size of orchard, direction of slope, height of grovmd above 
.surrounding land, kind of soil, killing of blossoms by late spring frosts, etc. 

2. Tabulate the results and compare the exposure with the frost damage. 

3. Varieties of Apples and Pears. — Make up a list of these fruits grown in 
your region and indicate which are considered most successful in the features 
mentioned in tliis chapter. Classify the varieties according to time of ripen- 
ing. 

4. Inter-cropping in young orchards should be made a special study for your 
region. What crops are used? Wliich are best for the trees? How long is 
inter-cropping continued in young orchards? 

5. A project in inter-cropping may be conducted by each student in his 
home orchard. Make plans and record forms to include each of the points to 
be observed and reported. 

6. Orchard projects are rather long but they should be started. (1) Some 
can deal with the starting of young orchards. (2) Others may include the 
management of the home orchard for a year or two. (3) The rejuvenation of 
old, neglected orchards are good projects. 

7. Harvesting, packing and marketing may be short projects pursued by 
young people. 

8. Fruit Storage. — The above may be combined with winter storage of 
apples and pears. Trials may be made to compare results of (1) marketing 
from the orchard, and (2) storing and holding for winter prices. 

9. Scoring Fruit Exhibits. — ^Fruit growing projects are made more inter- 
esting if the products are to be exhibited at school or some other central loca- 
tion. Figure 91 shows some good features of exhibits. Autumn is usually the 
best time for the show. 

Let all know what points are to be scored when the fruit is judged. Pub- 
lish or otherwise annoimce the score cards to be used. The points are here given 
by way of suggestion: Uniformity of exhibit, 20 points; size of fruit, 15; color, 
15, form, 15; quality, 15; freedom from blemishes, 20; total 100 points. (See 
School and Home Gardening chap. XXI.) 

10. Fruit Descriptions. — When apples and other fruits are available, stu- 
dents .should practice describing fruits. See plans and methods in Waugh's 
"Systematic Pomology." Also see descriptions of six varieties of apples given 
with figure 119. Secure typical specimens from homes and markets. Com- 
pare different varieties as to form, cavity, basin, color, dots, skin, core, quality, 
flavor, texture, use. Describe each in these points. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe a good location for an apple orchard (on your place if possible). 

2. What soils in your region (or elsewhere) are best suited for apples? For 

pears? 

3. Name varieties of apples for summer, for fall, and for winter, which are 

recommended for your region. 



TYPICAL FORMS OF SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES 



193 




Fig. 119. — Typical forms of six varieties of apples. A, Chenango, oblong to ovate or 
egg-shaped; cavity large; basin shallow, core large, partly open. B, Winter Banana, globu- 
lar, symmetrical; cavity wide, deep; calyx and basin very small; core large, open. C, Buck- 
ingham, roundish-conical; cavity wide, deep; basin wide, deep, furrowed; open small, closed. 
D, Lawver, roundish-oblate; ca\'ity large, furrowed; basin and calyx medium; core large, 
open. E, Golden Sweet, oblate or roundish-oblate; cavity and basin medium; core medium, 
nearly closed. F, Sierra, roundish-oblate, inclined to conic, with broad base; cavity very 
wide, deep; basin very wide, rather shallow, furrowed; core small, closed. (After Ohio 
Station.) 



13 



194 THE HOME ORCHARD— APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE 

4. What distance apart is best for planting apple trees? For pear trees? 

5. Describe a good plan for laying out the orchard for planting. 

6. What should be the pruning for young trees at planting time? 

7. Describe the planting of a tree. 

8. What crops are good to grow between the rows of young trees in your 

region? 

9. What are the uses of a winter cover crop in the orchard? 

10. What would you use for this? When? How started? 

11. Give some cautions and directions for the harvesting of apples. 

12. Same for pears. 

13. Give best conditions for storing of winter apples. 

14. Describe some methods used in your region. 

15. Give several points regarding the management and growth of the quince. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 181, Pruning: 482, Pear and How 
to Grow It; 727, Growing Fruit for Home Use in the Great Plains Area; 852, 
Managemnet of Common-Storage Apple Houses in the Pacific Northwest; 903, 
Commercial Drying of Fruits; 984, Farm and Home Drying of Fruits and 
Vegetables; 1080, Preparation of Barreled Apples for Market; 1204, North- 
western Apple Packing Houses. 

Determining Hatching Dates for Codling Moth. — Each student and each 
orchardist should band a few apple tree trunks with brown paper or burlap, 
in the fall to trap the larvae of codling moths. 

In early spring put several hundreds of these in a breeding cage made of 
fly screen. Supply pieces of apple bark for covering. Place the cage near a 
tree or fasten to a large branch. Four days after they become moths they 
will lay eggs to begin hatching ten days later. Plan to spray to poison larvae 
then. 

The second brood should be trapped in late spring. These larvae hatch m 
four days, or eight days from the time the adults emerge. 

The third brood may be trapped by banding about July, or about six 
weeks after brood two was trapped. 



CHAPTER XVII 
ENEMIES OF THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QXnNCE 

Many of the insects and diseases which attack the apple orchard 
are also enemies of the pear and quince. These may well be con- 
sidered in a group together. 

Codling Moth. — One of the worst apple insects is the codling 
moth, or apple worm. It is the insect which makes apples, pears 
and other core fruits wormy. The adult moth lays eggs in early 
spring in the blossoms of the fruit. As soon as the eggs hatch the 
lai'vae eat their way toward the center of the fruit, and when fully 
fed emerge from the surface and drop to the ground from a sus- 
pended web fiber. In many cases the apples drop to the ground 
with the larvae in them. When the young emerge they go to the 
trunk of the tree and form cocoons or nests in crevices of the bark. 
Here they rest for a few weeks, or if the season is short they may 
spend the winter in this pupa stage. Where the season is long 
enough a second brood of moths lay eggs on the surface of the 
half grown apples, and the young do much damage by burrowing 
tunnels through the fruit. Wormy apples are almost worthless on 
the market. 

Remedies for the Codling Moth. — The best remedy is to spray 
the trees just after the petals fall. Never spray when the trees are 
in full bloom because of danger to bees which are pollinating the 
fruit. The spraying should be done before the calyx cups close 
and before the young apples begin to hang downward (Fig. 120 
and 121). See method of determining hatching dates, page 194 

The spray materials used should all contain arsenical poison so 

that the young larvse will be killed as soon as they begin to eat 

their way into the fruits. Arsenate of lead is usually preferred to 

Paris green. As the apple has a number of diseases, lime-sulfur or 

Bordeaux is usually applied at the same time. Arsenate of lead. 

paste mixed with lime-sulfur or Bordeaux at the rate of about 

three pounds of poison to each 50 gallons is applied as fine spray. 

TRis should be done not only just after the petals fall, but should 

be repeated again about two weeks later. This will counteract 

the attacks of the latest insects of the spring brood. 

195 



196 



ENEMIES OP THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE 



Apple Borers. — The apple tree is attacked by several borers. 
The most common of these is the so-called flat headed apple tree 
borer, which is the larva of a buprestid beetle. The larva lives in. 
the tree about two years and burrows chiefly in the sap wood and 




Fig. 120. — Three stages for spraying apple and pear trees. 1, winter buds open, spray 
for scab, aphids, and bud moth. 2, pink or pre-blossom, spray for scab, bud moth, and leaf 
roller. 3, calyx spray for scab and codling- moth. (Oregon Station.) 





Fig. 121. — Two conditions of the apple or pear when a spray would not be applied. 
When blossoms are open pollen and bees would be injured. Just after the calyx cups have 
closed and the stems are hanging down a poison cannot enter the cups for codling moth. 

green bark. As it girdles around the tree it causes much damage 
and trees are often killed when attacked by several borers. 

Another common apple tree borer is the so-called round headed 
borer, which is the larvaof a beautiful long-horned beetle (Fig.122). 
It lives in the trunk of the tree about three years and burrows in 
the heart wood as well as in the sap wood. 



TENT CATERPILLAE 



19^ 




The remedies for these apple borers are mechanical. The 
larvae must be found and killed before they have done much 
damage. Cut away the outer bark with the point of a Imife or 
wire and destroy the larva. The trunk of the tree may be pro- 
tected from the adults by bands of paper or other materials which 
will keep the adult beetles from laying their eggs on the trunk. 
Netting shown in figure 123 may be fine enough to keep out these 
beetles. Repellent 

washes are sometimes '* •'%••''■ , "^'^^ *f ^'■" * " "** l'""^^'^^ 
used. One of the best 
of these is a heavy coat 
of lime-salfur. j^j.. 

Canker Worm. — This 
is sometimes called a 
measuring worm, as the 
feet of the larvae are at 
the two ends of the 
body, and the insect 
seems to be measuring 
the distance as it 
travels. These occur in 
large numbers in the 
trees and destroy the 
leaves. As the leaves of 
a tree are its lungs and 
digestive organs it suf- 
fers greatly from the 
attacks of this insect. 
All biting insects can 
be readily destroyed by 
applications of poison. 
Arsenate of lead with 
summer strength lime- 
sulfur is used when 
attacks are noticed. 

Tent Caterpillar, — There are two forms of tent caterpillar which 
conunonly attack trees. The larva of the apple tent caterpillar 
has a row of yellow dots down the middle of the back instead of a 
yellow stripe found on the forest tent caterpillar. Both of these 
attack a number of kinds of trees, and as their work and remedies 
are somewhat similar they may be considered together. The egg 



t 




Fia. 122. — Adult beetle of the round headed apple tree 
borer. The holes show the wounds made by the insects. 
The larvae are very destructive to apple trees. Watch 
the base of the trees and when borings are found follow 
the channels with a wire and crush the insects. (West 
Virginia Station.) 



198 



ENEMIES OF THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE 



■J% -" 






clusters are formed around the twigs of the trees and may be seen 
in winter when there are no leaves on the trees. These may be 
pruned off and destroyed. In the spring when the eggs hatch the 
young soon form webs as homes, from which they make attacks on 
the leaf growth. 

The web may be burned with torches of kerosene on long poles. 

Many caterpillars may 
thus be destroyed with 
a minimum of injury 
to the tree. 

Another remedy is 
to spray the tree all 
over with arsenical 
poison, such as arsen- 
ate of lead. This will 
poison the larvse when 
they are seeking their 
food. 

Apple Scab. — Prob- 
ably the worst disease 
of the apple is apple 
scab. This fungous 
growth attacks the 
leaves, small twigs and 
the young fruits them- 
selves (Fig. 124). The 
scabby appearance 
formed on the fruit 
gives origin to the 
name. The disease 
lives in the form of 
spores on the trees and 
in the rubbish under 
the trees from one sea- 
son to another. 

Remedies. — The winter spraying for San Jose scale described 
under the head of peach growing in the next chapter will destroy 
many of the winter spores of the scab disease. 

The orchard should again be sprayed with lime-sulfur or Bor- 
deaux mixture about the time when the buds are opening and 
before the blossoms are open. 




Fig. 12:1 — Netting around the base ot tree to protect 
from mice, rabbits, etc. (Indiana Station.) 



BITTER ROT 199 

Twig Blight. — Pears, apples and quinces are subject to attacks 
of a bacterial disease Imown as twig blight. Small twigs of trees 
are seen to turn brown after the leaves have formed. This may 
prove very serious, as the attacks may extend into the larger 
branches and destroy nearly all the new growth each season. No 
satisfactory remedy for this disease has yet been found. Spraying 
with Bordeaux mixture for the control of scab and other diseases 
will doubtless aid somewhat in the control of twig blight. 

Severe pruning is considered the most satisfactory remedy. 
The pruning instruments should be disinfected after every cut by 
dipping in an antiseptic solution, such as copper sulfate, or carbolic 
acid. Make the cuts about one foot farther back than the disease 
because of the probability that the disease extends downward in 
the sap farther than it shows on the surface. Bum the prunings. 




Fig. 124. — Scab disease and sooty blotch on apples compared with sound specimens on the 

left. (Ohio Station.) 

Constitutional remedies are sometimes recommended. It is 
believed that the disease is more prevalent in heavy, rich soils. If 
this be true, robbing the soil of some of its plant food by cropping 
with millet, buckwheat and similar crops may be helpful. 

Certain varieties are more immune to the disease than others. 
Further study along this line is yet to be made. 

Bitter Rot. — The apple fruits are attacked by a disease known 
as bitter rot. The fungous growth starts in a small spot on the 
surface when the fruit is growing on the tree. These spots enlarge 
until they cover large areas and reach to the center of the apples. 
Several spots blend into each other and the whole fruit is finally 
destroyed. Certain varieties of sweet apples are more subject to 
the disease than others. Bentley Sweet, for example, is quite 
subject to attacks of bitter rot. 




FiQ. 125. — Rust oa apple leaf S'luicwliat enlargeil, -Ay 

(Indiana StatiunJ 



-like fungous growth, 

^"1 




Fig. 126. — Apple rust fungus on the cedar, called "cedar apple." Spores from this gener- 
ation infest the apple, as shown. (Indiana Station.) 



APPLE RUST 



201 




Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is considered to be a partial 
remedy for this disease. There is evidence that rich soils will 
cause fruits to suffer from bitter rot worse than where the trees 
are partially starved. 

Apple Canker. — This form of attack is noticed 
twigs and main branches, and 
sometimes on the trunk of trees. 
The best remedy is to scrape 
away and thoroughly cleanse the 
diseased parts. Wash with cop- 
per sulfate solution. Spraying 
thoroughly with lime-sulfur is 
believed to be helpful. Scraping 
and cleaning, however, should 
always precede the washing with 
antiseptics. 

Sun Scald. — The appearance 
of sun scald is somewhat similar 
to the canker disease. The bark 
on the main parts dies and peels 
from an attack of sun scald. 
Scraping clean and washing with 
antiseptics are recommended. 

In setting young trees care 
should be exercised to allow their 
own growth to shade their trunks. 
Trees are sometimes severely at- 
tacked by sun scald after a winter 
with much snow. It is supposed 
that the reflection of the sun from 
the surface of the snow will blister the bark so openly exposed at 
that season of the year. Tying the trunks with paper will pro- 
tect them in the winter as well as in the summer. This method 
may be easily practiced in the home orchard. 

Apple rust is a fungous disease which seriously attacks the 
leaves, twigs and young fruits of pears and apples. The fungus 
has an alternate generation in the form of a fleshy growth on cedar 
trees, known as the cedar apple (Figs. 125 and 126). 

A remedy for the disease is to cut down all cedar trees in the 
vicinity of the orchard. Spraying with lime-sulfur or Bordeaux 
mixture, as for scab will aid in controlling the rust. 




Fig. 127. — Frog-eye leaf spot disease on 
apple leaf. The usual spraying to prevent 
scab holds this disease in check. (Virginia 
station.) 



202 ENEMIES OF THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE 

Frog-eye is a fungous growth forming round spots on the leaves 
(Fig. 127). It also attacks the twigs and fruit of pears and apples. 
The sprayings recommended for scab disease will usually control 
frog-eye. 

Curculio on Core Fruits. — A species of curculio closely resem- 
bling the one which attacks peaches, plums, and cherries, is an 





Fig. 128. — Apples deformed and stunted by attacks of curculio beetles. 

enemy of the apple and other core fruits. Figure 128 shows the 
bad effects of this insect. The wounds in the young fruits made 
by the insect in biting the skin, cause a deformity. This may 
make much of the fruit unfit for market. 

EXERCISES 

1. Losses from Orchard Enemies.— Ascertain to what extent the San 
Jos6 scale insect is injurious in your neighborhood. The same information 
should be learned regarding the other insects and diseases of orchards. Calcu- 
late the total loss due to these enemies. 

2. Collect specimens of insects and specimens of fruit, twigs, etc., showing 
the damage done by various diseases and insects. Among these try to secure 
both apple rust and cedar apples. Keep these at school for future reference. 

3. Practice combating enemies by all the methods suggested for each. 
Determine which are the best remedies. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How can you prevent damage by codling moth? 

2. How can you combat apple tree borers? 

3. What remedies are used for canker worm? For tent caterpillars? 

4. For what troubles in the orchard are poisons used with lime-sulfur . 

5. Give remedies recommended for twig blight? 

6. Describe the disease called frog-eye? 

7. Describe the effects of curculio attacks on apples? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 662, Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar; 
675, Round-headed Apple Tree Borer; 938, Apple Bitter-Rot and Its Control; 
1056, Fungous and Insect Enemies of Pear; 1065, Flat-headed Apple Tree 
Borer; 1120, Apple Powdery Mildew Control; 1128, Aphid Control; 1160, 
Diseases of Apples in Storage. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE PEACH ORCHARD 

The peach is probably the most popular orchard fruit in America, 
and yet the regions where it is grown cominercially are much 
more limited than for the apple (Fig. 129). The largest peach 
orchards are found in the southern states and along the Atlantic 
and Pacific coasts where the climate is modified by large bodies of 




UNITED STATES 

PEACHES 

TREES OF BEARING AND 
NOT OF BEARING AGE 

APPROXIMATE ACREAGE 
EACH DOT REPRESENTS 500 ACRE 



Fig. 129. — About three-fourths of the peach trees are south of the Ohio and Missouri 
Rivers and in California. Low winter and spring temperatures occur so frequently north 
of a line from Chicago to Cheyenne that the production of peaches becomes unprofitable. 

water and along those shores of the Great Lakes where the pre- 
vailing winds tend to modify the climate enough. The peach is 
also grown commercially along the Allegheny Ridges, where the 
air drainage is sufficient to prevent serious damage to the blossoms 
from late spring frosts. 

Location and Exposure.— In selecting the location for the peach 
orchard we must give the utmost attention to the question of air 
drainage. The peach tends to blossom so early in the spring that 
the late spring frosts will kill the pistils and ruin the crop for that 

203 



204 THE PEACH ORCHARD 

year. The peaches planted at the top of the hill will be far less 
subject to spring frost than those in the valley. A very gentle 
slope as in figure 130 may be sufficient. 

It is more important to have the peach crop grown on the 
northeast slope than with any other orchard trees. The first few 
warm days on a southern slope may warm the soil enough to force 
the trees into blossom. As the blossoms have no protection from 
the leaves, as in the case of the apple they are more easily killed. 




Fig. 130. — A peach orchurd in Massachusetts, two years old. Eoston Marrow squash 
vines growing between the rows. Use inter-cropping only while trees are young. (Photo 
from F. C. Sears.) 

In nearly all climates the peach tends to open its buds even 
with a few warm days in Januarj^, February or March before 
winter is really over. In northern exposures the soil remains cold 
and the sap is not forced into circulation through the tree enough 
to cause the buds to open. The fruit is therefore not so likely to be 
killed if the blossoms do not show before spring weather has come 
to stay. 

Peach Soils. — The peach will thrive well on rather light soils 
(Fig. 131). Soils very heavy in clay are not well adapted to peach 
growing. The peach prefers soils that are warmed quickly and 



VARIETIES FOR PLANTING 



205 



have good under-drainage. If the drainage is poor the leaves will 
turn yellow and the growth is slow. 

High elevations will usually have sufficient drainage unless there 
be seepage water from the hillside. Apples, pears and plums 
would better be used where there is danger of the soil being too 
heavy for peaches. 

Varieties for Planting. — Peaches ripen at different seasons, and 
a succession of ripening may be secured by selecting several varie- 




FiG. 131. — The light soil of the peach orchard should be kept well cultivated. (Indiana 

Station.) 

ties with different ripening dates. The very earliest varieties are 
more subject to attacks of the brown rot disease, and as it is a very 
serious enemy the earliest varieties should not be planted. Berries 
and other fruits may be made to take the place of early varieties of 
peaches. For the home garden start with Mountain Rose or 
Champion. Next would come Oldmixon Free or Stump-the- 
World. Just after these will come Reeve's Favorite or Captain 



206 THE PEACH ORCHARD 

Ede. These all precede the Elberta in ripening. The Elberta is a 
yellow fleshed, free stone which is very popular, and many orchard- 
ists make their mam planting of this variety. 

Just after Elberta we can have Crawford Late or Fox Seedling. 
Then will follow Smock, Ford Late, or Picket Late. The next 
group will be Bonanza, Heath Cling and Leavy's Late Cling. If 
any later than these are desired plant Salway. Still later than this 
is Bilyeu, but it is hardly worth growing for home use. 

Do not choose more than one of each of these groups. If we 
omitted the last this would make a selection of seven varieties. 
This may be too many. Probably the best three would be Moun- 
tain Rose, Elberta and Crawford Late. Ask your state experiment 
station to recommend varieties for your section. 

Getting the Trees. — In selecting trees for planting the grower 
has a number of things to consider. 

L Whether to plant June budded or August budded trees is 
probably the first consideration. June budded trees are always 
cheaper when purchased from the nurseries. They are smaller, as 
they have made less than one season's growth. 

2. Trees of June budding (Fig. 132) are much cheaper than 
those of September budding (See chapter VI.), but the cheapest 
in this case are not the best. 

3. Whether to buy trees from the nursery or to grow them at 
home is another consideration. If large orchards are to be planted 
and the matter has been considered at least a year in advance it 
may pay to grow your own trees. Otherwise buy them from a 
nursery not too far away. 

4. Never buy two-year-old trees. They are sure to make less 
growth than the younger trees; it is more difficult to make their 
heads form to suit; they cost more; the freight is more; a larger 
number of them will die. 

5. Order trees several months in advance so that you will be 
certain to get your choice of varieties. If possible have them 
shipped to you before it is time to plant. Heel them ui as shown 
in figure 133. 

6. In ordering allow some latitude in choice of varieties. In 
certain groups one variety is nearly as good as another. Allow 
the nursery to substitute trees for those they cannot supply in 
your list, provided they ripen at the same season. 

Laying Out the Orchard. — The directions for laying out the 
apple orchard should be read again (Fig. 134). If peaches are to be 



PEACHES AS FILLERS 



207 



planted alone and not as fillers among apple trees they may be set 
twenty feet apart each way, or even as close as fifteen feet each 
way. The distance will depend upon (1) strength of the soil 
(2) type of head whether low or high, (3) system of pruning to be 
followed m the care of the orchard. Close pruning will allow of 
close planting. 




Fig. 132. — Peach trees just received from the nursery for planting in the orchard. At 
left are grades one, two and three of September budding. Next are two sizes of June budded 
trees. (New Jersey Station.) 

Peaches as Fillers. — The peach tree comes to bearing age by 
the third or fourth spring after planting. Because of this quick- 
maturing feature the trees are often planted with apples, which 
mature more slowly. The plan usually followed in this filler 
system of planting is shown in figure 136. There are three times as 
many peach fillers as there are permanent apple trees. 

When the peach trees are about ten or twelve years old they 



208 



THE PEACH ORCHARD 



may be cut out and the ground will be fairly well occupied with 
apple trees. 

Inter-cropping. — The same principles regarding mter-cropping 
mentioned for the apple orchard apply here (Fig. 135). If crops 
wliich require thorough cultivation are grown between the trees, 
then the trees will receive the cultivation they need. Do not 
grow tall crops, such as corn or sorghum between the trees. This 
tends to shade the trees too much unless wide spaces are between 
the crops and the trees. Early varieties of Irish potatoes are 
suitable, if the soil is favorable. It is well to let the orchard have 




Fig. 133. 



-Fruit trees should be heeled in as soon as received or when dug from the nursery. 
Tramp the soil well about the roots. (Indiana Station.) 



very little if any cultivation during the latter part of the summer 
and early fall. 

Cover Crops. — It is more important, perhaps, with peaches than 
with any other orchard trees to have a cover crop sown late in July 
or early in August to remain during the fall and winter (Fig. 137). 
The growth of this crop will tend to check the growth of the trees 
in the fall, cause them to ripen their buds and bark in time for 
winter and prevent some winter killing. The cover crop will also 
take up and hold available plant food for the use of the trees the 
next summer. It will prevent leaching and washing of the soil. 
The cover crop also keeps a carpet over the ground which is much 
appreciated during the .winter pruning and spraying operations. 

For the cover crop sow rye, winter vetch and perhaps crimson 
clover where the winters are not too severe. 



PRUNING 



209 



Clean culture in a bearing orchard without an inter-crop is a 
good plan while the trees are 3'oung. 

Pruning. — In starting a young orchard it is important to start 
the trees right. Low-headed trees make the spraying easier, the 
picking easier, and the pruning easier. The cultivation, however. 




Fig. 134. — Laying off the rows for planting peach trees. If tlie furro\ys are very straight 
this method of laying out the orchard will save considerable hand labor in setting the trees. 




Fig. 135. — A young peach orchard with rows of garden truck planted between the rows of 
trees. (N. J. Station.) 

is a little more difficult, as the limbs of the trees are more in the 
way of the implements and teams. 

In selecting the side limbs when the orchard is young remember 
that these are to be the main limbs of the trees later on. They 
should be at different heights on the trunk so they will not split off 
14 



210 



THE PEACH ORCHARD 



so easily. They should extend in different directions so as to 
somewhat balance the tree. 

The annual pruning (Fig. 138) of the peach orchard should in- 
clude (1) the removal of all branches that are dead or diseased, 
(2) remove any twigs or shoots or large branches that tend to rub or 
cross through the head of the tree, (3) trim off twigs bearing mum- 
mied fruits, (4) trim away any parts that have been broken or 
injured by wind or otherwise, (5) thin the mainhead if needed to 
let in more light, (6) cut back the long growths. This may include 



+ 4»^4.4- + + + 4. 

+ -»' + 'l»4' + + + 4, 

+ •♦•♦ % ^ m ^ 

* + + + 4^4.44. 



Fig. 136. — A plan of planting the orchard using the filler system, 
manent trees; others are temporary. 



Black dots are the per- 



the entire removal of some of the long shoots and cuttmg back 
one-third or one-half the length of many others. 

Some study should be given to the location of the fruit buds at 
pruning time. They are located where two or three buds are 
found together on the twigs. If the fruit buds are numerous more 
severe cutting back of the new growth is allowable than when the 
fruit buds are scarce. 

It is well to look over the trees each summer and remove small 
shoots starting at the base and inside the head where they are not 



HARVESTING THE PEACH CROP 



211 



needed. These may be pinched off or cut with a pocket knife. 
(Fig. 139). 

Fertilizing the Peaches.^ — On Ught sandy soils considerable com- 
mercial fertilizer should be used, particularly in the growing of the 
young trees. In the early growth use a mixture containing con- 
siderable nitrate or ammonia (Fig. 140). As the trees reach bearing 
age use a larger proportion of phosphoric acid and potash and 
reduce the quantity of nitrogen. It is best to make the fertilizer 
mixture at home to suit the soil and the conditions of the trees. 

The best time to apply conm^iercial fertihzer is just after turning 




Fig. 137. — The cover crop is 



)\\n early to make a good growth before winter. (Indiana 
Station.) 



under the green manure crop. Harrowing or cultivation which 
follows the spring plowing will help to incorporate the fertilizer 
with the soil. 

If soils are heavy little if any fertilizer is necessary in addition 
to the green manure added by the plowing under of the winter 
cover crop. 

Harvesting the Peach Crop. — For home use it is well to let the 
peaches become fully mature on the trees before picking. They 
should be watched enough to have them picked before they fall to 
the ground. For market purposes it is necessary to pick them 



212 



THE PEACH ORCHARD 



'-i-'MsJ^ 




much earlier than for home use. When the crop is to be marketed 
near by they can be more nearly ripe than if they are to be shipped 
some distance. Often the California crop is picked ten to fifteen 
days before it is sold on the eastern markets. During this time 
the fruit is becoming riper in j^ackages. This plan, however, does 
not allow for as much development of sugar, and the fruit is apt 
to have a bitter taste. The longer the crop remains upon the 
trees the sweeter and richer the flavor will be. 

Always pick the fruit by hand; never allow it to be shaken from 
the trees and gathered from the ground. With low-headed trees 

small step ladders will 
enable the picker to 
reach all parts without 
climbing. (Fig. 141). 
On high -headed trees 
some climbing may be 
necessary, or longer lad- 
ders may be used. 

If the crop has been 
thinned little sorting of 
the fruit will be neces- 
sary, as it will practi- 
cally all be of first grade 
size. The thinning is 
(lone when the peaches 
are about the size of 
cherries. Only enough 
peaches are left on the 
trees at thinning time 
so that they will not 
touch each other when they become full size. They should not 
be left closer than four inches. Enough improvement in size and 
quality is attained to greatly increase the value of the peaches 
produced. The cost of thinning is very little, and the crop 
brings a better price. Figure 142 shows bad effects of not prun- 
ing the tree nor thinning the fruit. 

Peach Packages. — The best fruit for market is packed m crates 
containing six one-half peck baskets. This is called the Georgia 
carrier, or the Georgia crate (Fig. 143). 

The next grade of fruit is quite commonly packed in Climax 
baskets with wood or wire handles over the center. The cover 



1' IG. i.Js. — Some light pruning each year is the best 
plan. Note the amount of prunings under the tree. 
This tree might have the branches thinned out a trifle 
more. 



ORCHARD PEACH TREES 



213 




Fig. 139. — Summer pruning is chiefly done with a knife or merely with the fingers. 
Remove the small shoots inside and at the base, to direct the growth where desired. (New 
Jersey Station.) 











Fig. 140. — Orchard peach trees two years old. The one at the right has been fed liberally 
with much nitrogen in the fertilizer. The other has received no fertilizer. 



214 



THE PEACH ORCHARD 



may be either of wood or of mosquito bar. The handle should be 
rigid, and is usually not bent down duiing shipment. Fruit 




I- 1';. 1 II. — Pickint;; ami parking peaches for shipment. 




Fig. 1-12. — A peach tree breaking down with its load because the branches were not cut 
back, and the fruit was not thinned. (New Jersey Station.) 

packed in Climax baskets is usually not repacked at the market, 
but the purchaser takes the package with him. 

The Delaware peach basket holds one-half bushel or more, has 



THE PEACH TREE BORER 



215 



sloping sides and is used abundantly for the bulk of peaches 
shipped to market from many peach sections. These are used by 
some growers for packing the third grade or poorest fruit. The 
covers are made of wood and protect the fruit well when shipped. 

ENEMIES. 

The San Jose scale is very destructive to the peach orchard. It 
is prevalent in all parts of the countiy, and attacks nearly all kinds 
of fruit trees and shrubs, and is very serious on many forms of 
shade and ornamental plants. Figures 144 and 145 show the insect. 

The pest is not so 
serious that it requires 
the destruction of the 
trees by man, as meth- 
ods of control are now 
well understood. Thor- 
ough spraying in the 
winter with Imie-sulfur 
or with miscible oil will 
usually keep this pest in 
check. We can never 
get rid of the insect en- 
tirely, but the annual 
spraying is beneficial for 
other purposes, and the 
extra cost of the battle 
due to the presence of 
the scale is very slight. 
The trees should be 
sprayed very thoroughly 
just after the winter pruning is completed. Select a warm, bright 
day in winter and spray thoroughly from top to bottom of the 
tree. Let no spot be skipped. If the scale is very severe two 
sprayings may be necessary. The first spraying may be applied in 
the late fall or early winter just after the leaves have dropped. At 
this time use the miscible oil. See Chapter XXV. The next 
spraying can be with lime-sulfur. This should be completed before 
the buds begin to swell in the spring. 

The peach tree borer is a serious pest in nearly all orchards. It 
bores in the soft wood near the surface of the ground, sometimes 
several inches underground, and sometimes as much as a foot or so 
above ground. It attacks trees of all stone fruits. 




Fig. 143. — Two styles of packing peaohes in Georgia 
carriers. Diagonal pack at left, popular with dealers. 
Flat and tight pack at right, fruit Oi'ten bruised. 
(Michigan Station.) 



216 



THE PEACH ORCHARD 




Fig, 144. — San Jos6 scale on twig, as scoii under magnifying lens or microscope. (Ken- 
tucky Station.) 





B 




". 4 si 






Fig. 145. — Three left twigs infested with scale insects. A, San Jose scale; B, oyster-shell 
bark-louse; C, the scurfy bark-louse; D, eggs of green grass-hoppers, sometimes mistaken for 
scale; E, healthy twig. (Kentucky Station.) 



THE PLUM CURCULIO 



217 



The adult insect is a moth with transparent wings (Fig. 146). 
She lays her eggs on the bark of tiie tree near the ground, and the 
larvae when hatched eat inward, killing or injuring the tree. 

One remedy is to keep the adult from laying her eggs on the 
trees by banding them w ith tar paper, veneer wood or other mater- 
ial (Fig. 147). Another remedy is to dig out worms and kill them 
with a knife or wire. To do this it is well to remove the soil for 
several inches below the surface. In a few days t^^^ larvae may be 
located by their borings. 
Para-dichloro-benzene 
spread on bare soil two 
inches away from trunks, 
in fall, and then covered 
with soil, will kill the bor- 
ers in 5 or 6 weeks. This 
is safe for trees 6 years old. 
Use one ounce per tree. 
(See Famiers' Bulletin 
1246). Soil should be 60 de- 
grees F. or warmer. 

The plum curculio is the 
worst enemy of the fruit 
itself. This little beetle 
lays eggs on the surface of 
the fruit when it is about 
the size of the garden pea. 
The young, hatch and eat 
their way into the fruit at 
a wound made by the 
adult. The larva feeds on 
the flesh of the fruit, 
chiefly near the stone. 
This causes much fruit to 
fall. This should be picked 
up, as by pigs. Larvse soon crawl into the soil. Chickens and birds 
may catch some. Frequent tillage for five weeks after this will 
destroy many and prevent their second brood. Winter hiding 
places should be destroyed by plowing under rubbish and burning 
borders. 

As the adults lay their eggs cheifly in the morning twilight they 




poach tree borer (1) female 

iiiuth, 1,3; larva, uT gl ub, 

feeding in burrow; (4) cocoon; (5) cocoon with 
pupa emerging; (6) empty pupal case protruding 
from a burrow. (Ohio Station.) 



218 



THfi PEACH ORCHARD 



can be destroyed by jarring the tree and catching the adults on 
stretchers made for the purpose. This is only a partial control. 

Three sprayings besides winter spray are necessary in the South 
or where curculio are most serious, elsewhere omit poison from 
No. 1 (See below). These may be made while fighting brown 
rot. (See below). 

Brown Rot of Peaches. — This is probably the worst fungous 
disease of the peach and plmn (Fig. 148). It is most serious upon 
the early ripening varieties, but is found to some extent on nearly 




Fig. 147. — Peach borers have been removed from the left tree and lie in view. Right tree 
protected with paper so adult moth cannot place her eggs in the trunk. (New Jersey 
Station.) 

all varieties unless sprayed. Select varieties least affected by the 
brown rot and always spray. 

Spraying for Brown Rot and Curculio. — The combined spray 
materials may be used in controlling curculio and brown rot. The 
beetles come from their winter hiding places to feed on opening 
buds. In the campaign use 8-8-50 self-boiled lime-sulfur with 
two pounds paste or one pound powdered arsenate of lead: (1) 
when the buds are bursting and show a little pink, to kill old 
spores and some adult curculio; (2) just after petals fall; (3) a 
week or ten days later. If needed spray for rot four weeks before 
ripening and for second brood curculio in the South about two 
months after petals fall. 



PEACH YELLOWS 



219 



Peach Leaf Curl. — This is a fungous disease which affects the 
foUage of stone fruits and often causes severe dropping of leaves 




Fig. 148. — Brown rot (monilia) on peach and plum. It affects the fruit, twigs, and leaves 

of all stone fruits. 

in early summer or later (Fig. 149). The trouble is usually 
controlled without special effort while spraying orchrrds with 
fungicides for other diseases such as brown 
rot and scab. 

Peach Scab is a serious disease of the peach 
in some sections. It affects the fruit and 
causes it to harden and split on one side, and 
the twigs turn brown. This makes them re- 
semble an attack of twig blight on apples. 

The campaign just described for the control 
of brown rot disease will be effective in the 
control of scab. 

Peach Yellows. — This disease is difficult to 
recognize. Its cause is not loiown. Symptoms 
which indicate the disease are: (1) Red, 
spotted character of the fruit; the spots and 
red lines of flesh beneath them are scattered, 
and appear on one side before they do on the 
other. (2) Premature ripening and uneven 
ripeness of fruit. (3) Bitter and insipid taste 
of such fruits. (4) Tip growth of small yel- 
lowish leaves from terminal buds. These leaves are stiff, narrow, 
and stand outward from the stem. These tip growths may appear 




Fig. 149. — Peach leaf 
curl disease which at- 
tacks branches of cherry, 
peach and plum. 



220 



THE PEACH ORCHARD 



late in the season. (5) Stiff-leaved, yellowish shoots from the 
body of the tree. These may become dense tufts. (6) Small, 
slender growth of all new wood (Fig. 150), with narrow, small 
leaves. These may be yellow or reddish in color. (7) Death in 
a few years. 




Fig. 150. — A pretty certain indication of the yellows disease. Numerous weak twigs and 
branches with premature starting of leaves in early spring. (New Jersey Station.) 

Do not confuse attacks of borers or of starvation with the yel- 
lows disease. Rosette, little peach, and leaf curl are diseases 
which are apt to be mistaken for yellows. 

The treatment, when yellows is positively found, is to take out 
the tree, roots and all, and burn it entirely. No spraying or other 
cure or prevention has yet been found. 



QUESTIONS 221 

SURVEYS, PROJECTS, AND EXERCISES 

1. Orchard Projects. — A student may manage the peach orchard for one 
season or more. Perform the pruning, spraying, cultivation, fertihzing, inter- 
cropping, growing the cover crop, fighting borers, harvesting, marketmg, etc. 
Make directions and record blanks to suit. 

2. A more limited project may include merely the inter- cropping in a young 
orchard. Plant, cultivate, harvest, and market these crops. 

3. A short project may be made of the picking, packing and marketmg 
of a crop of fruit. 

4. Fertilizer trials may be made in the orchard to determine which are 
best for your particular soils, which hasten the ripening, which delay the ripen- 

i'lg- . . 

5. An Orchard survey should be made to determine what varieties are 
most successful, times of ripening, best exposures, loss from spring frosts 
benefits of spraying, damage from borers, scale, curcuho, brown rot, scab; 
system of heading, picking, packing, and marketing. 

6. Blossoming Dates.— Make a lisfof all the varieties of peaches grown in 
the region. Opposite each of these indicate the date of (1) first bloom, (2) full 
bloom, (3) falhng bloom. From these tables determine what varieties could 
be used to cross polhnate others. 

7. Spraying Dates for Second Brood Curculio. — Collect a few wormy 
peaches that have fallen to the ground from early attacks of curculio. Put 
them in or on a box of soil covered with a wire cage made of fly screen 
tacked on a frame. Note the transformations of the insects and the time 
required for pupa stage for egg laying, and for eggs to hatch. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What regions of America are best suited to the growing of peaches? 

2. Why is an eastern or northern slope best for peach orchards? 

3. Describe best soils for peaches, plums, and cherries. 

4. Make a Ust of varieties of peaches arranged according to dates of ripening. 

5. Give several points to consider in selecting trees for planting. 

6. Give directions for laying out and planting the peach orchard. 

7. Mention several good crops to grow between the rows of the young orchard . 

8. Give several advantages of using cover crops in the peach orchard. 

9. Give directions for pruning trees at setting time. 

10. Give arguments for low heading and for high heading. 

11. Discuss fertilizers for peaches. 

12. Give directions and reasons for thinning fruit. 

13. Give several cautions and directions for harvesting peaches. 

14. Describe some good fruit packages for peaches. 

15. How is the peach-tree borer kept in control? 

16. The plum curculio? 

17. Give directions for control of San Jos6 scale. 

18. Same for brown rot. 

19. Same for peach scab. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 685, The Native Persimmon; 900, 
Homemade FruitButters; 917, Growing peaches: Sites and Cultural Methods; 
918, Growing Peaches: Varieties, Classifications, and Propagation. Read the 
peach article in The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. 

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 181, Pruning; 685, The Native 
Persimmon; 900, Homemade Fruit Butters; 917, Growing Peaches: Sites and 
Cultural Methods; 918, Growing Peaches: Varieties, Classifications, and 
Propagation; 1096, Prevention of Damage from Frost; 1211, Home Canning; 
1246, The Peach Borer (Para-dichloro-benzene treatment). Read the peach 
article in The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. 



CHAPTER XIX 

CHERRIES AND PLUMS 

Many of the lessons considered in the Peach chapter are of 
value in connection with the raising of cherries and plums. Each of 
these fruits are further discussed in this chapter. 

CHERRIES 

Cherries are chiefly of two main types: the sweet and the sour 
cherries (Fig. 151). These come from two distinct species, but 




Fig. 151. — Black sour cherry trees sometime reach enormous size and Hve many years. 

they have been greatly improved by close selection and otherwise. 
Those in cultivation have chiefly originated in the Old World, and 
our native cherries are little used. The cherry is grown success- 
fully in all parts of the country, from Newfoundland to Florida 
and from ocean to ocean (Fig. 152). 

Soils. — The sour cherry is grown in nearly all types of soil and 
in varied climates. They are considered much hardier than the 
others and less subject to enemies. The sweet cherry prefers 
rather rich black loam, and should be given close attention by the 
grower. 
222 



VARIETIES OF SOUR CHERRIES 



223 



Location. — As with the apple and peach, the cherry trees should 
be planted where there is plenty of air drainage. A good slope 
toward the east or north is desirable. 

Varieties. — Growers who are unfamiliar with the varieties of 
sweet cherries should first grow only a few of them. The varieties 
of sour cherries may be grown with less care and with more assur- 
ance of success. 

Varieties of Sweet Cherries. — The popular varieties of sweet 
cherries are the so-called Hearts, the Dukes and the Bigarreaus. 
Black Tartarian and Governor Wood are varieties of the Hearts. 



( • / / n 

]W- \ / / 

UNITED STATES ^\ 

CHERRIES 

TREES OF BEARING AND 

NOT OF BEARING AGE 

APPROXIMATE ACREAGE 
EACH DOT REPRESENTS 100 ACRES 






^ 


■ 1 


1^ 


t/> 


^ 


J ^Xi 


1 

% 


• 



Fig. 152. — Approximate acreage of cherry trees in the United States. California, Oregon, 
Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Wisconsin are the leading states in the pro- 
duction of cherries. The centers of commercial production are located in the Lake States 
and the valleys of the West. Very few cherry trees are found in the Southern States. 
(U.S.D.A.) 

These are heart shaped and light colored. The Dukes are repre- 
sented by May Duke and Rheine Hortense. These are smaller 
than the other sweet cherries. The flesh is very soft, and they are 
difficult to handle in shippmg. The Bigarreaus are also heart 
shaped, but have firm flesh. The Yellow Spanish and Napoleon 
are light colored, and the Schmidt and Bmg are dark colored. 

Varieties of Sour Cherries. — The early Richmond and Mont- 
morency are rather small, light colored, sour cherries with rather 
clear juice. The trees are somewhat upright in growth and branch 
while very young (Fig. 153). 



224 



CHERRIES AND PLUMS 



English Morello and Louis Philippe are small sour cherries, 
dark in color with dark clear juice. The trees are characterized by 
having a drooping habit. 

Propagation of Cherries. — Budding is chiefly followed in the 
propagation of cherries of all kmds. Mazzard and Mahaleb stocks 
are commonly used except in Japan. Russian sour cherries are 
sometimes used in the regions with rigorous winter. The budding 
is done in late summer more commonly than in June The buds 




Fig. 153.— a block of Montmorency cherry trees during its first Reason's growth in the 
nursery. Tlie sour varieties habitually branch the first season as shown here. 

remain dormant until the following spring, when the stock is 
pruned off above the bud and a new top is formed by the shoot 
growing from the bud. Growers desiring fruit should select the 
trees budded on Mazzard stock, and should insist upon trees of 
this kmd when purchasing from nurseries. The growth of the 
trees may not be so beautiful, but the bearing qualities will be 
much improved over those budded on Mahaleb stocks. 

Starting the Cherry Orchard. — Trees are commonly planted at 
distances somewhat the same as peaches. The upright varieties if 



CULTIVATION 



225 



headed low may be grown as close as sixteen feet each way. If the 
trees are headed high, and -if the soil is rich so that the growth 
will be large the distance may be twenty to thirty-three feet 
apart each way. 

The planting may be done either in late fall or early spring. In 
the southern states winter planting may be also followed. 

Only a few trees are necessary for the home orchard, but if a sur- 
plus can be easily marketed it is well to start a number of trees, as 
the fruit usually brings a good price. 




Fig. 154. — Well pruned cherry trees fifteen years old in a commercial orchard. fU.S.D. A.) 

Pruning. — Cherry trees may be headed two to three feet above 
ground, and sometimes lower heading is practiced. It is well to 
thin the branches annually, but we seldom practice as close pruning 
with the cherry as with the peach or apple. Cut away all injured or 
diseased parts and make the tree well balanced throughout the 
head. Figure 154. 

Cultivation. — Clean culture between the trees is recommended. 
A winter cover crop may be sown in midsummmer to remain until 
late spring. This, if plowed under may have enough plant food so 
that fertilizer will not be necessary. The addition of manure or 
other forms of fertilizer may be used on light soils. 
15 



226 



CHERRIES AND PLUMS 



Picking Cherries. — Cherries are usually picked with the stems 
on; this prevents the loss of juice andjnakes them stand up better 
during handling. They are usually picked in Climax baskets with 
handles or m smaller baskets holding one or two quarts. The fruit 
is usually repacked so that the stems are not conspicuous when 
shown on the market. Small trees may be picked from the ground 
and from small ladders, as shown in left corner (Fig. 155) . 

The cherries should not be picked until they show some degree 
of ripeness. Mere colormg is not sufficient. The flesh should be 
well developed, showing a degree of maturity. 




Fig. 155. — Packing Early Richmond variety of cherries in Ohio. The rigid metal buckets 
used in picking prevent serious bruising of fruit. (U.S.D.A.) 

Uses. — For home use the cherry crop should be used abundantly 
while fresh for stewing, eating out of hand and for making pies. 
Much of the surplus crop may be preserved for winter use. Some 
varieties are easily dried, but all may be readily kept in the canned 
form. They are less commonly made into preserves and jellies. 
Juice of other fruits added to the cherry juice will aid in jelling. 
The juice of the cherry alone may be kept in the unfermented form. 

Insect Enemies of the Cherry. — The cherry, like other stone 
fruits is seriously attacked by curculio insects which make the 
fruit wormy. The remedies suggested under the head of peaches 
may be used with the cherry as well as with the plum. 



SOILS FOR PLUMS 



227 



Peach borers also attack the cherry trees, particularly of the 
sweet varieties. The remedies against borers have already been 
discussed under insect enemies of the peach. 

San Jose scale is less serious on the cherry than on peaches and 
plums. The remedies, however, are the same. 

Brown Rot on Cherries. — Probably the worst disease of the cherry 
is the brown rot. It seriously attacks the sweet varieties and is hard 
to control. Spray with Bordeaux mixture as suggested for the 
peach. 

PLUMS 

There are three main types of plums in common use. These are 
almost as different from each other as plums are from cherries, 



if^Tr-— -r— ^ 




5^ 


^' 


'^^~v* ^ ^~~T- \ 




fTrr-S 


*-■ ■ 1 


V^ \ i— 4^-__:^ ■■••:• 


T •'■■H' ••■ 


UNITED STATES ^\. ' '. -.' 
PLUMS AND PRUNES V/--\ ' 

TREES OF BEARING \ 
AND NOT OF BEARING AGE \ / 
APPROXIMATE ACREAGE V 1 
EACH DOT REPRESENTS 500 ACRES ^W 


V • ' /^ 



Fig. 156. — About one-third of the acreage of plums and prunes is in California. (U. S. D. A.) 

and yet they grade into each other in many ways. Their culture, 
soil and characteristics differ widely. Figure 156 shows the wide 
distribution of plum trees in the United States. 

Soils for Plums. — The Japanese plums and the Domestica, or 
European plums, prefer rich, heavy soils. Many of the American 
types of plums endure well the light soils, while others of this 
group prefer the rich, heavy soils. In trying to select a type to 
suit the soil of any particular region it is well to consult the exper- 
iment station authorities in your state. Some varieties will do 
much better than others in any locality. 



228 



CHERRIES AND PLUMS 



Location and Exposure. — Plums, like peaches, should be grown 
on the northern and eastern slopes to help retard the blossoming 
season and prevent danger from late spring frosts. If such exposure 
cannot be secured for the plum orchard it should at least be planted 
where there is good air drainage, so that the cold air on frosty 
nights in the spring will not kill the pistils of the blossoms at the 
critical time. 

Types and Varieties. — Three main types of plums grown in 
cultivation are (1) the Japanese group, including Burbank, Abun- 
dance, Satsuma and many others. This group is abundantly 
grown in California as well as in all other sections of the country. 

(2) The domestica, or European plums, are represented by 




1 iG. 157. — Miner variety of American plum. A good red fruit, and the variety is used as 
stocks for American plums. (Iowa Station.) 

Lombard, Bradshaw, Yellow Egg, Green gage, Rheine Claud, 
Quackenboss and many others. Prunes and Damsons belong in 
this group. This group of plums is more popular in the northern 
and eastern plum growing sections than in any others. 

(3) Plums of the American type are natives of America, They 
include the common wild plums and the improved varietal forms of 
several species. In this group are usually grown such varieties as 
Wild Goose, Wayland, Miner (Fig. 157), Golden Beauty (Fig. 
158), Newman, Moreman, Lone Star, Caddo Chief, Milton (Fig. 159) 
and many others. 

The Apricot or Simon plum is so distinct in character that it is 
often not classified as a plum at all. It is widely distributed 



PRUNING 



229 



throughout this country, but is chiefly grown m southern CaUfor- 
nia and somewhat in the Gulf States. 

Starting the Plum Orchard.^ — After preparing the soil as well as 
you would for a corn crop, lay off the rows at distances to suit the 
varieties. For most of the American plums the rows may be 
closer than with peaches. Fifteen feet each way is quite common. 
With Japanese plums and some of the European plums the distance 
is often a little greater. Some orchardists prefer to plant the rows 
closer one way than the other. In this plan make the distance 
between the rows eighteen or twenty feet and the trees the other 
way may be set eight to twelve feet. 





Fig. 158. — Golden Beauty plum. 



Fig. 159.— Milton plum. 



Careful planting is advised. Do not expose the roots to the air 
any longer than necessary. When the trees are received from the 
nursery they should be heeled in until the holes are dug. Put 
them in a barrel containing some water and carry them in this way 
on a sled or on a wagon to the place where they are to be planted. 

The roots are therefore wet when put into the hole and covered 
with soil. Firm the soil about the roots well, but leave a light 
mulch on top. 

Pruning. — The low heading of plum trees is now usually prac- 
ticed. It is well to give close attention to the choice of the main 
branches, particularly in those varieties which make large trees, 



230 CHERRIES AND PLUMS 

such as some of the Japanese varieties. Avoid keeping branches 
that are opposite each other; this tends to cause more severe 
sphtting when branches are loaded with fruit. 

The annual pruning should consist of thinning out the head, 
removing dead branches, and cutting away diseased parts and 
removing all mummied fruits if any. Cut back the long leaders 
that have made too m'ich growth. Keep the tree as symmetrical 
as possible without losing the other points mentioned. Never 
allow stubs to be formed by the pruner. Make all cuts as close as 
possible to the main branches so that the wounds may be easily 
healed over. 

Cultivating the Orchard.— The first few years a crop should be 
grown between the trees which will require clean cultivation. 
Plant beans, peas, early potatoes, early cabbage or other similar 
crops. After the trees are old enough to bear, the inter-crop may be 
discontinued if the trees are large. Clean culture should be given 
the orchard if the best results are to be attained. A winter cover 
crop may be sown in midsummer to cover the soil, to prevent 
washing, to save the fertility for next year, and to make a carpet 
over the ground for the pruning and spraying operations of winter. 

The cover crop may be turned under in the spring as green 
manure. This will serve as fertilizer for the trees that season. If 
the soil is well suited to the type of plums grown, probably no 
other fertilizer will need to be added. In case the soil is rather too 
light some commercial fertilizer or barnyard manure maybe applied 
in addition to the green manure. 

Harvesting the Crop. — With some varieties it is difficult to pick 
the crop at just the right time. So many of the fruits may ripen 
ahead of others that they will need to be watched and picked at 
intervals through several weeks. If they are for home use or to be 
sold on the local market they should be allowed to ripen as far as 
possible on the trees without dropping to the ground. If they 
are to be shipped some distance they may be picked much earlier 
and will usually complete their ripening fairly well after picking. 
Many varieties of Japanese and European plums will ripen more 
uniformly and fewer pickings will be necessary than with the 
American varieties. 

The fruit is commonly picked in large Climax baskets, with 
wooden handles, hanging from the left arm. These will prevent 
the bruising of the fruit if the picker is careful. Small, round 
baskets holding from one peck to one-half bushel, made of rigid 



BROWN ROT ON PLUMS 231 

Bplints and having strong wooden handles, may be lined with cloth 
and used by the picker: The fruit should be sorted as to size and 
color when packed for market. The types of package in common 
use are the same as those mentioned for peaches, except that many 
of the smaller varieties are often marketed in quart baskets. Dam- 
sons and others when first found on the market are often shown in 
quart baskets. The large peach baskets are not commonly used 
for plums. 

Home Use of Plums. — The larger varieties of plums are peeled 
and pared or cut in half, the seed removed, and then they are 
stewed for table use. The Japanese varieties and some of the 
large European varieties are often sei^ved fresh and eaten out 
of hand. 

Methods of preserving for winter are canning, drying, preserving 
and making into jelly. The American plums are popular for jelly. 
Damsons are preferably made into preserves. Prunes are common- 
ly dried or canned. 

Insect Enemies. — The San Jose scale is very serious on the plum. 
This insect has been thoroughly discussed under the head of 
peaches. 

Peach borers are usually as bad on plums as on peaches or 
cherries. The Japanese varieties are perhaps more frequently 
attacked by borers than are the trees of other types. Attention 
must be given to all plum trees to prevent danger from borers. 
Dig them out as described for borers on peaches. 

The plum curculio will make all the fruits wormy if possible. 
Wormy fruits are absolutely worthless on the market or for table 
use. Spraying is the best method of preventing their attack. 
Follow the spraying campaign described for the peach. 

Brown Rot on Plums. — This disease is the most serious enemy of 
the plum orchard. The early varieties are sometimes entirely 
destroyed by the brown rot. The rot starts on one spot or on one 
side and gradually spreads over the whole fruit. The spores 
become abundant over the surface and can easily be blown to other 
fruits or will spread to them through actual contact if the fruit has 
not been thinned. Many of the twigs are apt to turn brown and 
the new leaves are killed. A vigorous spraying campaign such as 
described for the peach should be followed. During the winter, 
many of the fruits which have been affected by this disease remain 
on the trees. These should be removed at pruning time so that 
they will be plowed under in the early spring. 



232 CHERRIES AND PLUMS 

PROJECTS AND EXERCISES. 

1. Orchard Projects. — Planting and managing an orchard of plums or 
cherries, or both, may be considered a valuable long-time project. It should 
include care of soil, pruning and spraying of trees, inter-cropping, fighting 
borers, harvesting the fruit crop, marketing. Records should be kept of all the 
steps in the project. 

2. Any point of this project may be pursued for a shorter time, as the care 
and management of the crops used in inter-cropping, growth of cover crops, 
fertilizing, cultivation, etc. The entire care and management of the orchard 
for one entire year would make a good project. 

3. Variety Trials. — ^With project No. 1 a trial of different varieties may be 
made to determine which are best for home use or for market in your region. 

4. Orchard Fertilizers. — Make trials with different fertihzers in either 
young orchards or in older ones. Determine which are best in your soils for 
producing large growths of young trees, which hasten or delay the ripening of 
fruit. 

5. Cherry and Pliun Surveys. — Repeat the orchard survey suggested at 
the close of the preceding chapter. Apply it now to plums and cherries. 

6. Blossoming Dates. — Make a list of all the varieties of plums and cherries 
that are considered successful in your region. Record for each. the dates of 
blossoming and show what varieties could be grown together for pollenizing 
purposes. 

7. Ripening Dates. — Opposite the names of the different varieties record 
the first and last ripening dates of fruit for your region. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How are cherries propagated? 

2. Mention varieties of each of the two main types of cherries. 

3. What cherries and plums are grown in your section? 

4. What can you say of the distribution of cherries in America? Of plums? 

(See maps). 

5. Give directions for starting a cherry orchard; plum orchard. 

6. Give instructions regarding the picking of cherries. 

7. What are the three main types of plums? Give examples of each. 

8. Why should mummied fruits be removed from plum trees? 

9. What crops can be used for inter-cropping? 

10. Compare these crops as to suitability for this purpose. 

11. Discuss methods of picking plums. 

12. What are the chief insects affecting the plum? 

13. What are the plum's worst diseases. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 181, Pruning; 776, Growing 
Cherries East of the Rocky Mountains; 1053, Control of Cherry Leaf Spot; 
1096, Prevention of Damage from Frost; 1211, Home Canning. See Waugh's 
book of Plums and Plum Culture. 



CHAPTER XX 



STRAWBERRIES 

The strawberry is grown in all the humid parts of the United 
States (Fig. 160). It requires considerable moisture and should 
not be grown where the rainfall is too light unless irrigation is 
provided. 

Soils. — The best soils for growing strawberries are light sandy 
loams or medium sandy loams. The clay soils also produce the 




UNITED STATES 

STRAWBERRIES 

ACREAGE 
EACH DOT REPRESENTS 100 ACRES 



Fig. 100. — Strawberry acreage in the United States. Strawberries are intensively cul- 
tivated for shipment largely to northern markets in several localities along the Atlantic 
Coast and in the lower Mississippi Valley. Important centers of production are also located 
in the Pacific Coast States. (U.S.D.A.) 

strawberry well, but if dry weather follows heavy rains, the soil will 
bake and the yield be greatly reduced. 

The heavy soils may be made more suitable for strawberries by a 
heavy application of manure. This will add organic matter and 
loosen the soil. The addition of lime will also flocculate the soil and 
make it more porous. If lime and manure are both added to heavy 
soils, the results will be very favorable to strawberries. 

Location. — It is well to have the strawberry plantation in a 
sunny exposure where there is no shade from trees. Near the main 

233 



234 



STRAWBERRIES 



residence is a good place. The picking should be attended to often 
and a long distance might cause neglect. The crop is more easil}^ 
protected from marauders if the patch is located near the home. 

Varieties of Strawberries. — Each locality favors certain varie- 
ties of strawberries. It is easy to make a selection of several varie- 
ties that will thrive in a particular region. 

There are two kinds of strawberry blossoms. Some varieties 
have only the pistillate blooms while others have perfect blossoms 
with both stamens and pistil. Those with perfect blossoms have 
the power to pollinate themselves and bear fruit without the prox- 
imity of other varieties. Those varieties with imperfect flowers 
such as Black Beauty, Granger and Sherman, which have few if 
any true stamens and no pollen, must be grown near other varieties 





Fig. 161. — Two types of strawberry blossoms. Left one has stamens and can pollinate it- 
self and others. Right has little or no pollen and cannot bear fruit alone. 

which blossom at the same time and bear perfect flowers. The 
pollen from the perfect flowered varieties will fertilize the others 
and fruit is produced (Fig. 161). 

The two kinds may be planted in alternate rows, or one row of 
perfect flowers to each three or four of imperfect flowers. 

It would be a good plan to select such varieties for planting as 
are grown successfully by others in the same locality on the same 
kind of soil. Do not select new varieties until they have been 
reported favorably by the experiment stations or by other experi- 
mental growers. Write to the State experiment station for a list of 
varieties which are suited to your region. Popular varieties used 
in nearly all parts of the country are (1) Excelsior and Dunlap 
(2) Klondike and Missionary; (3) Chesapeake, Aroma, Sample, 



THREE PLANS OF GROWING STRAWBERRIES 235 

and Gandy. These groups are numbered in the order of their 
ripening. Others popular in many sections are Glen Mary 
Brandywine, Warfield, Bubach, Marshall, Climax, Melinda, Jessie, 
Gold Dollar, Clark, Wilson, Americus, Iowa, etc. 

The Indiana Station found the following varieties to be supe- 
rior to others in their season: 

Earliest Medium Late 

Gill Senator Dunlap Grays Dollar 
Excelsior Haverland Black Beauty- 
August Luther First Quality Columbia 
Grand Marie Chesapeake 
Early Aroma Sample 

Texas ► 

Klondike Latest 

Gandy 
Ohmer 

Three Plans of Growing Strawberries. — Far the most common 
method of growing the strawberry is known as the matted-row 
system. In this plan the plants are set about twelve to eighteen 
inches apart in rows four feet apart. The runners from these plants 
are allowed to take root in all directions until a rather solid mat is 
formed two feet wide (Fig. 162). This leaves a space for culti- 
vation between the matted rows of about two feet. The weeds 
growing in the matted rows are pulled by hand. 

The hedge-row system (Fig. 163) is coming more into use in 
nearly all parts of the country where it has been tried. By this 
plan the plants are first set in rows about three feet apart and are 
allowed to set their runners only in a narrow row forming a dense 
"hedge." The runners extending outside this middle space are 
cut off by a wheel cutter, hoe, or spade. The entire middle is 
thoroughly cultivated and all of the strength of the plants is forced 
into the crowns, blossoms and fruit. 

The hill-row system (Fig. 164) differs from the hedge-row system 
in not allowing the runners to reach out in any direction. The 
plants are set in rows both ways about three feet apart each way. 
Cultivation is given in both directions. The plants attain stronger 
crowns by this method than by any other. Of course the number 
of plants per acre is less. 

The student should compare the advantages of the three systems. 
The principle should be kept in mind that plants which allow run- 
ners to form continuously will not make strong crowns nor bear 



236 



STRAWBERRIES 



as much fruit to each plant as others. The hedge-row and hill-row 
plans allow of more mulching as the mulching of the matted-row 
must be removed in the spring to allow the crop to form. In the 




Fig. 162. — ;jtiau beuius grown in narruw, n... ul^i i„u6 with suaw mulch betwcLi.. , i..v.,aua. 

Station.) 

other two plans the mulch may remain between the rows until 
after picking. The fruit clusters may form upon it and are thus 
kept out of dirt. This mulch keeps down the weeds, conserves 












Fig. 163. — Strawberries in narrow hedge-rows three feet apart. The straw mulch saves 
moisture in the soil, keeps the berries clean, and keeps down the weeds. 

moisture and makes picking more agreeable. After the crop is all 
gathered, the vines are mowed down, raked off with the mulch 
and put into the compost heap. 



FERTILIZING 



237 



Two kinds of mulching material, corn stalks and straw, are 
shown in figures 165 and 166. 

Cultivation of Strawberries. — The plants respond readily to 
thorough cultivation. The more tillage given to the patch, the 
better the plants will grow and the larger will be the yield. Culti- 
vation in the matted-row is very limited and does not come close to 
any plant but at the edges of the rows. The soil is apt to become 
hard and baked as the strawberry takes its moisture from the soil. 
In regions where grass tends to grow, considerable handwork and 
hoe work may be necessary. Clean cultivation with no weeds and 
grass should be the rule. 




Fig. Itj4. — Strawberries grown according to the hill-row system. The plants in rows in two 
directions allow of cultivation on all sides of each plant. Cultivation takes place after har- 
vest when the mulch is removed. (Indiana Station.) 

Fertilizing. — The strawberry plant may be said to be a ravenous 
feeder. It requires a great deal of nourishment and will respond to 
heavy feeding. The best form of plant food is supplied by adding 
barnyard manure. Some soils can be fertilized as heavy as twenty 
tons of barnyard manure to the acre for the strawberry crop. 

A good plan for applying barnyard manure is to plow it under at 
two different times before setting the plants. Apply one-half the 
manure, turn it under, then apply the remainder and turn that 
under by plowing crosswise of the first plowing. This will incor- 
porate the manure in the soil well. 

\ If commercial fertilizers are used, bone meal and tankage are 
good forms. Many growers give an application of nitrate of soda 



238 



STRAWBERRIES 



to the plants just after the pickmg season is over, after the patch 
has been cleaned up thoroughly. 

Picking Strawberries.— The home patch should be picked fre- 
quently and no berries should be allowed to rot on the vines. 
This practice would take away too much of the strength of the 
plants. Most varieties of berries can be picked as soon as they 
show half color or a little more. The calyx and perhaps a portion 
of the stem should remain attached to the berries. This is the 
natural separation from the plant in most cases. 




Fia. 165.- 



-Corn stalkb i 



lake a ratlier coarse mulch for strawberries, but will aid in keeping 
the berries clean. (New Jersey Station.) 



Never mass the berries in large vessels. They should be kept in 
light wooden berry boxes holding one quart. In commercial pick- 
ing, each picker is assigned to his own row and required to pick it 
clean as he goes. The berry boxes are carried in shallow trays with 
strong handles. These trays hold from ten to twenty quart boxes. 
The grading and repickmg is done at a central headquarters where 
the wagons load them for market. Each picker is given a ticket in 
the form of a tag tied to his crate or to his clothing. It is punched 
by the foreman as each lot of berries is delivered to him. The pay 



RENEWING THE PLANTATION 239 

varies from one cent to two cents a quart in different sections and 
different years. 

Insect Enemies of the Strawberry. — The strawberry weevil is 
one of the worst enemies of tlie plant. It is difficult to control. 
One of the best remedies is to mow the patch after picking, and 
burn the vines. The new growth following may be reasonably 
free from this insect. 

Diseases of the Strawberry. — Several leaf diseases attack the 
plant. The leaf spot is probably the worst. Any of these are kept 
under control fairly well by mowing and burning the vines after 
picking. Instead of burning the vines they may be hauled to some 




Fig. 166. — Coarse straw, weeds and marsh grass are ideal materials for mulching straw- 
berries. (New Jersey Station.) 

distance and put into a compost heap that is to be used on other 
crops. The rotting is destructive to the disease and if used on corn 
or potatoes no harm will come. 

Renewing the Plantation.^Strawberries are expected to bear 
only two or three crops. If the vines are first set in August they 
may bear one light crop the next year and two heavier crops 
after that. 

It is advisable to set a new patch every year or at least every 
two years. These plants should be put on fresh ground not infested 
with enemies of the strawberry. 



240 STRAWBERRIES 

STRAWBERRY SURVEYS, EXERCISES, AND PROJECTS 

1. Soils. — Stud}' the soils of your region as to their suitability for straw- 
berry growing. 

2. Varieties for the Region. — Make a study of varieties grown in your 
region. Ask each grower for the best and second best varieties with perfect 
flowers, and pistillate varieties. Get the dates of ripening. Tabulate the re- 
sults to show the popularity of each variety. Compare the varieties as to 
flavor, handling qualities, size, color, yields, disease resistance of plants, etc. 

3. Systems of planting should be studied in the gardens or fields. If the 
three main systems are practiced by any of the different growers of the commu- 
nity, a full comparison of the advantages and disadvantages should be made. 
Compare the yields, proportion of first grade berries, freedom from culls, costs 
of picking, etc. Compare them as to the adaptation to the annual mulching. 

4. Projects with strawberries may be either short or long. (I) One form 
of project may include merely the picking and marketing of one crop. (2) 
Tliis may be extended to include the annual cultivation, management, mulch- 
ing, etc. (3) A longer project may extend over two or three seasons from plant- 
ing time to ending of the patch. 

5. Judging strawberries of different varieties is a good exercise to aid in 
becoming famihar with different varieties as to size, shape, color, flavor, etc. 

6. Planting strawberries by different systems should be practiced by all 
students. 

7. Cutting oflf runners with different hand tools may be tried by each stu- 
dent until a good comparison can be made. 

8. Starting plants in pots is a good summer exercise in the patch. Plunge 
small pots of soil near the strongest parent plants. Cause runners to take root 
in these. Later transplant the potted plants to new garden patches — say in 
August. 

9. Forcing strawberries in-doors in winter from plants potted in early sum- 
mer may be tried by those who have favorable conditions. 

10. Strawberry growing contests may be organized among growers or 
among students. Have the areas and varieties the same in all cases. Let the 
individuals exercise choice in the methods of planting, cultivation, mulching, 
etc. 

QUESTIONS 

1 . What soils are best for strawberries? Second best? 

2. Mention several perfect-flowered varieties of strawberries for your region. 

3. How can you manage to get imperfect varieties to bear? 

4. Describe the hedge-row system of growing strawberries. 

5. Compare the results in tliis system with those in the matted-row system. 

6. Give directions for and importance of thoroughly fertilizing strawberry 

plants. 

7. Describe the annual mulching system for the strawberry patch. 

8. Give suggestions regarding the harvesting and handling of strawberries. 

9. What insects and diseases are apt to trouble strawberries? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 854, Stra\7berry Culture in 
Tennessee, Kentucky, and West Virginia; 901, Everbearing Strawberries; 979, 
Preparation of Strawberries for Market; 1026, Southern Strawberry Culture; 
1027, Western Strawberry Culture; 1028, Eastern Strawberry Culture; 1043, 
Strawberry Varieties; 1211, Home Canning. 



CHAPTER XXI 
GRAPES 

There are three niain types of grapes grown in different parts of 
the country. They may nearly all be grown in the southern states 
but only the hardy varieties, or so-called northern grapes are suc- 
cessfully grown in the northern half of the country. 

Soils. — The grape is not particularly partial to special soils 
though it will thrive much better on the medium sandy loams than 
in the heavier soils. Almost any good garden soil may be made to 
grow grapes successfully. The light soils may be improved by ad- 
ding organic matter in the form of green manure or barnyard 
manure. The heavier soils may be improved by the application of 
both these forms of manure and by the use of lime. 

Location. — It is well to have the grapes near the house where they 
can be carefully watched from marauders, from birds, and from 
other natural enemies. For home use it is not a bad plan to have a 
grape arbor which is permanent in character and which will fur- 
nish a cover for a walk at least part of the year. If the grape is 
to be grown for market, a hillside is to be preferred. Good drainage 
is thus supplied and the vines may be set more closely if the sun 
can reach all of them. 

The aspect should not be to the west but may be south or south- 
east. An east or north exposure is not objectionable. As the crop 
bears its fruit on shoots formed the same year, it is not usually 
affected by late spring frosts. 

Varieties. — The so-called southern bunch grapes are suitable 
for growth through the southern states. Good varieties of this 
type are Headlight, Herbemout, Brilliant, and Bailey. 

The great crops of muscadine grapes may be grown in states 
east of the Mississippi river and south of the Kentuck}^ line. A 
trial nursery of muscadine grapes conducted by the United States 
Department of Agriculture in North Carolina has proved these 
varieties can withstand the winters in the warmer parts of that 
state. Probably the best muscadines named in order of ripening 
are Memory, Thomas, James, and Luola. The northern bunch 
grapes are suitable for growth in all parts of the country. They 
have been grown ever since colonial days and many varieties have 
16 241 



242 GRAPES 

been developed. These may be grouped into three classes accord- 
ing to their color: black, red and white (green). In the following 
hst these are arranged by seasons of ripening : 

Early Black. — Champion, Early Daisy. 
Early Red. — Delaware, Lutie, Wyoming Red. 
Early White. — Diamond, Empire State, Winchell. 
Medium Season Black. — Campbell, Eumelan, Herbert, Ives, Worden. 
Medium Season Red. — Agawam, Brighton, Iowa, Jefferson, Lindley, 
Salem. 

Medium Season White. — Duchess, Niagara. 
Late Black. — Norton, Wilder. 
Late Red. — Catawba, Goethe, Woodruff. 
Late White. — Noah, Triumph. 

The Cornell Station gives the following list of the ten most impor- 
tant commercial varieties of grapes in order of importance: Con- 
cord, Delaware, Catawba, Niagara, Worden, Moore, Winchell, 
Campbell, Brighton, Diamond. 

That Station also recommends the following list of varieties to 
use in home gardens: 

Barry (black) Diamond (green) Kensington (green) 

Catawba (red) Downing (black) PockUngton (green) 

Colerain (green) Dutchess (green) Salem (red) 

Concord (black) Empire (green) Winchell (green) 

Cottage (black) Herbert (black) Worden (black) 

Delaware (red) lona (red) 

Starting the Vineyard.— Grapes are chiefly propagated in 
America by ripe wood cuttings made late in the fall or winter. 
These are stored in wet sand or sawdust in a cool cellar and planted 
in the ground about the middle of the spring season. 

After the cuttings are one year old, they may be transplanted to 
the permanent vineyard. Nurserymen supply one-year-old vines 
for growers in all parts of the country. 

The northern and southern bunch grapes are usually planted in 
rows about eight to ten feet apart and the vines are about eight 
feet apart in the rows. Muscadine grapes are given about two 
feet more space each way. The vineyard is usually planted in the 
spring but fall planting is also successful. 

Trellising. — Some systematic plan of starting the vines should be 
adopted. A number of plans are in use. Several of these have 
been given definite names. The high-renewal system is shown in 
figures 167 and 168. The four-cane Kniffin system is shown in 
figure 169. The Munsen system is shown in figures 170 and 171. 



PRUNING 



243 



Three plans for pruning and supporting vines common in Cali- 
fornia and elsewhere are shown in figures 172, 173, 174 and 175. 

Pruning. — Grapes should be pruned annually. The best time is 
in the winter when the sap is entirely dormant. If pruning is 




Fig. 107.— The upright or high-renewal system of pruning and training grape vines; after 
pruning. The fruiting shoots from these canes are trained upright and tied to the upper 
wires, as shown in next figure. 

delayed until spring, the sap will flow from the wounds abundantly. 
This will take away the strength of the vine. 

The system of pruning and the system of trellising should har- 




FiQ. 168. — The high-renewal system of training the new fruiting shoots of grape vines, 
bee the preceding figure. The wires are stretched at 24, 40 and 66 inches from the ground. 

monize with each other. Make the pruning rather close each year. 
Remember that the crop is borne on the new growth and not on 
the old at all. There is very little need of saving much of the old 



244 GRAPES 

wood except to form a trunk and enough of the last year's growth 
to furnish the buds necessary for the main shoots of the next 
season (Fig. 170). An examination of the accompanying figures 
will give a clear idea of the great amount of wood that can be cut 
away each year. For example, if five or six buds are left to form as 
many more shoots, there will be as much new wood as the root 
system can support and bear a crop of fruit. 

The effect of not pruning the vines each year is to so gradually 
divide the strength of the plant that the new growth in any one part 
is very limited and the possibility of fruit is thereby reduced. It is 
therefore difficult to allow vmes to remain unpruned for the sake of 




Fig. 169. — The four-cane Kniffin system of trellising grape vines, just after pruning. 
Two No. 10 wires are stretched. In the two-cane Kniffin (or umbrella) system the right 
branch would be cut at the trunk, removing the two lower arms. 

having an arbor well covered, without sacrificing fruit production. 
The best quality and yield is produced on well pruned vines. 
Arbors cannot be continuously covered with vines in close pruning 
systems. 

Cultivation. — The annual care of the soil where crops are growing 
is important. There should be clean cultivation at least during the 
first half of the season and no large growth of weeds or cover crop 
should be allowed to form under the vines until the picking season 
is over. Rye, vetch (Fig. 176), crimson clover or some other crop 
may be sown about the middle of July or the first of August to 
form a carpet under the vines and remain during the fall, winter 
and early spring. 



PICKING GRAPES 



245 



Fertilizing. — The grape vine will not need heavy applications of 
fertilizer except on very light soils. The first year the vmes are set 
they should have liberal applications of barnyard manure. 

If commercial fertilizer is used it should contain a little nitrogen 
and a large percentage of both phosphate and potash. For soils 




Fio. 170. — The modified Munson system of pruning grape vines. See the new fruiting 
shoots supported by the two upper wires and cross arms, shown in figure below. 

needing heavy applications of commercial fertilizer, a good formula 
would be thi-ee per cent nitrogen, six or eight per cent acid phos- 
phate, and four to six per cent potash. 

Picking Grapes. — For home use pick grapes in strong baskets or 
trap's with rigid handles. Spread a paper in the bottom and do 




Fig. 171. — Munson system of training grape vines. The two wires on cross arms are two 
feet aoart. The new growth is not easily blown down. Spraying and picking are aided by 
this plan. 

not pile the bunches more than one or two layers deep in the picking 
tray. Remove the bunches with a sharp thumb nail or a pair of 
scissors. Handle the fruit as gently and as little as possible. 

A little study and experience will teach the picker just when 
to do the picking. Some varieties need to be picked as soon as 



246 



GRAPES 



they are well colored. Others are much improved by remaining 
on the vines longer. 

Marketing the Surplus. — Grapes are usually marketed in rigid 
Climax baskets with wooden covers. These are of several sizes, 
holding from three to ten pounds. In this form they are often 
shipped by express or in refrigerator cars long distances. If well 
protected and reasonably well handled, they may reach the con- 
sumer in. first class condition and will usually not deteriorate 
before they have had ample time for consumption. 

Insect Enemies of Grapes. — There are a number of insects 
which attack grapes. The chief enemies are discussed here. 



Fig. 172. 



Fig. 173. 




Fig. 172. — Pruning by the "vertical cordon" system. Vines about three years old may 
have trunks three feet high with spurs at intervals up the sides. (California Station.) 
Fig. 173. — Starting a double crown on a five year old vine. Finally, it will have two full 

units on each side if the lower arms are not weakened and fail to produce wood. (California 

Station.) 

The grape leaf-hopper is perhaps one of the most common ene- 
mies of the grape. These are sometimes called "thrips." They 
feed chiefly on the under side of the leaves and suck the juice from 
them. Perhaps the best remedy is to thoroughly clean up the 
vineyard by plowing under in early spring all the leaves that have 
fallen. Hopper cages are sometimes used successfully where vines 
are not trellised. Resin sprays are sometimes used with nozzles 
which will strike the under side of the leaves. 

The grape leaf -folder occurs throughout the United States. Its 
damage is of less importance as it seldom seriously injures the crop. 



ROSE-CHAFERS 



247 



The larva folds the leaf over and fastens it with the web. From 
this house it does its feeding. If the attack is not serious the larva 
may be crushed by hand or the leaves picked off and burned. 
Where the attack is more serious, spraying with poisons is advised. 
The grapevine flea-beetle is most injurious to the buds of the 
vines in the spring. Vines that are regularly sprayed with poisons 
are usualh^ not troubled with flea-beetles. They are however 




Fig. 174. — Grapevines pruned with single horizontal cordons, with spurs and half-long 
canes to start new wood. (California Station.) 

more difficult to poison than most insects and eight pounds of 
arsenate of lead to forty gallons of water is advised, 

Rose-chafers are often serious enemies of grapes, eating the 
surface from the leaves. When very abundant, the only successful 
method of control is to jar them off on stretchers of cloth from 
which they are collected and killed in kerosene. The stretcher 
may be somewhat funnel shaped and lead to the dish of kerosene 
below. 



248 



GRAPES 




Fig. 175. — New growth on grapevine pruned to single horizontal cordon; variety Semillon. 
Compare with figure 174. (California Station.) 





Fig. 176. — A winter cover crop 



m 



THE GRAPEVINE ROOT-BORER 



249 



The grapevine phylloxera attacks both the leaves and the roots 
of the grapes. It is seldom serious except in California and in 
foreign grape growing regions. This is true at least of the root 
forms. Leaf-galls are often found on American grapes in other 
sections. When the roots are seriously attacked, they are appa- 
rently poisoned by the insect and decay follows. The vines are 




Fig. 17; 



-Downy mildew disease causes green fruit to become hard and dry; the riper 
fruits shrivel and turn brownish in color. (Minnesota Station.) 



frequently killed. Resistant varieties must be used for stocks in 
order to control the root form of this pest. If European grapes are 
grafted upon American stocks, they are usually not seriously 
affected by this enemy. 

The grapevine root-borer feeds on the roots of the grape some 
distance under the ground. Its work is not usually noticed until 



250 



GRAPES 



the vine dies or is nearly killed. It is believed that the muscadine 
group of grapes is not affected by this pest. It has been suggested 
that these vines be used as stocks for the grafting of other grapes 
where this enemy is serious. 

Diseases of the Grape. — The black rot is doubtless the worst 
disease of the grape. Downy mildew (Fig. 177) is also very destruc- 
tive in some sections. The methods required in preventing black 
rot disease will effectively control several other diseases which may 
otherwise occur. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture in the early 




Fig. 178. — Grapes affected with rot disease. Courtesy Mel. J. Cook. 



stages of fruit formation is recommended. This spray may be 
combined with arsenical poisons so as to control the disease and 
the leaf-eating insects at the same time. The first spraying should 
take place about the time the blossoming is over. It should be 
repeated every ten days or two weeks according to the weather 
conditions. With frequent rains and rapid growth, the spraying 
must be more frequent. 

Figure 178 shows the first effects of rot disease. If the attacks of 
rot and mildew occur before Bordeaux mixture has been applied it 
may be impossible to control the diseases. However, unaffected 
parts of the vine may be saved if the work is done promptly. After 



QUESTIONS 251 

the grapes are nearly full size, spraying with Bordeaux is not advised. 
It is difficult to remove from the fruit and some other material 
should be used which will wash off easily. There are three 
materials which may be substituted. Ammoniacal carbonate of 
copper is made from strong ammonia and carbonate of copper 
mixed with water. A harmless fungicide is livers of sulphur. 
Potassium permanganate is good on grapes and roses. See 
formulas Chapter XXV. 

The vineyard may be permanent if it is properly cared for. The 
vines are often known to reach the age of a century or more. In 
some soils, however, the life of the vines is much less. Frequently 
root-borers will affect the vines before the owner realizes their 
presence. Systematic spraying, annual cultivation, and close 
pruning will aid materially in making the vines permanent. 

GRAPE PROJECTS, EXERCISES, AND SURVEYS 

1. Care and management of the vineyard for a year or two should be made 
a home or school project. It should include pruning, spraying, tying, cultiva- 
tion, fertihzing, bagging of fruit, harvesting, putting up products, and mar- 
keting. 

2. Setting, trellising, and care of young vines may be a project for the 
first year of the vineyard. 

3. Separate exercises may be made of each of the vineyard operations. 
These will give good practice to each student. 

4. A questionaire may be made to determine the number of vines and 
amount of grapes grown by each family of the community. Ascertain best 
varieties of each color, order of ripening, worst enemies, remedies used, systems 
of pruning and of trellising. Ask for the amount and method of cultivation and 
of fertilizing in each case. The answers should be compared and the results 
tabulated under several heads. 

QUESTIONS 

1. From your own observation describe some good locations for the growing 

of grapes. 

2. What varieties of grapes are most popular in your section? 

3. Describe these. 

4. What are the peculiarities and special uses of muscadine grapes? 

5. Discuss the propagation of grapes. 

6. Describe some good methods of trellising. 

7. Give directions for the annual pruning of grapes. 

8. What cultivation and fertilizing are required for grapes? 

9. Give suggestions regarding the harvesting of grapes. 

10. Mention the worst insect enemies and give remedies for each. 

1 1. What diseases of grapes are found in your region? How are they controlled? 
References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 181, Pruning; 758, Muscadine 

Grape Sirup; 859, Home Preservation of Muscadine Grapes; 1075, How to 
Make Unfermented Grape Juice; 1128 Aphid Control; 1220,Insect and Fungoua 
Enemies of the Grape. 



CHAPTER XXII 
BUSH FRUITS IN THE HOME GARDEN 

The term bush fruits as here used includes raspberries, the 
blackberry group, currants, gooseberries, blueberries, and cran- 
berries. The distribution of bush fruits is shown in figure 179 
but the last three are not included in the map. 

While these are considered chiefly from the standpomt of the 



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r\ 


w?Q 


1 


■ .-.vl . . trl 


fer 


V- \ /L/P^^'^ 


■~] 




W^^ 


UNITED STATES \. 




\r 


rfy 


BUSH FRUITS V^ 


-x 


J'^^^-^^SAl^ 


^^'''~\ \ 


/BLACKBERRIES, RASPBERRIES, LOGANBERRIES 
^DEWBERRIES, CURRANTS, AND GOOSEBERRIES 


^\/ 


y 


\\ 


ACREAGE 


M 




i-i 


BACH DOT BEPRESENTS 100 ACRES 






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Fig. 179. — -Acreage of bush fruits in the United States. The acreage is mostly in the 
Northeastern .States, especially along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan and in the Lake 
Ontario and Finger Lakes regions of New York. Smaller but intensive centers of produc- 
tion are located in Sonoma County, Cal., around Salem, Oreg., and Puyallup, Wash. 

home gardener, the methods are much the same as for the com- 
mercial grower. The surplus product should be properly marketed. 

RASPBERRIES 

There are four main types of raspberries. (1) The so-called red 
raspberry group, including the red, purple and yellow berries 
(strigosus). (2) The black cap group (occidentalis). (3) The 
European group with red and yellow berries (idseus). (4) Purple 
caned varieties of the species Rubus neglectus. 
252 



PLANTING RASPBERRIES 



253 



Soils. — Rich black soil is best for raspberries. They are not 
thrifty m light sandy soils. The vines respond readily to additions 
of fertilizers and manures. 

Locations. — The raspberry patch for home fruit should be located 
at one side of the garden where the bushes may be left undisturbed 
for some years. Near the house is better than off at some distance 
because the fruit should be picked frequently. The vines should 
not, however, be placed in the shade of fruit trees or other trees. 
Give them an open exposure. The aspect of the slope is not an 
important consideration. Where hot west winds occur in the 
summer season, some protection on that side should be given. 

Varieties. — For practical considerations, the third group men- 
tioned above is not included here. Among the varieties of black 
raspberries belonging to the American black caps (species R. 




Fig. 180. 



-Pint berry baskets with two varieties of raspberries, 
right. (U.S.D.A.) 



Ruby at left, Empire at 



occidentalis) may be mentioned Black Cap, Cumberland, Farmer, 
Gregg, Kansas, Ohio, and Palmer. The purple, red, or yellow 
berries belonging to this species (occidentalis) are: Catawba 
(purple red), Columbian (purple). Golden Thornless (yellow), 
Purple Cane (red) and others (Fig. 180) . 

The red or purple varieties belonging to our native red rasp- 
berry group (strigosus) are Cuthbert, Herbert, King, Philadelphia, 
Marlboro, Ranere (or St. Regis) and Perfection. Yellowish 
varieties of this same group are the Caroline and the Flavus. 
Golden Queen is the chief yellow variety of the foreign species 
(idseus). 

Planting Raspberries. — A good plan is to plant the raspberries 
in solid rows with the plants three or four feet apart in the row and 
the rows about six feet apart. Sometimes the hill system of plant- 
ing is used, the plants being five feet apart each way. 



254 BUSH FRUITS IN THE HOME GARDEN 

As the red raspberries (strigosus group) propagate readily by- 
underground stolons or suckers, the solid-row method is best 
adapted to that type. 

A good time for planting is in very early spring. Set the plants a 
little deeper than they were in the nursery soil and firm the dirt 
about the roots well. 

Inter-crops such as cabbage, cauliflower, beans, peas, and other 
garden crops may be grown between the rows the first year. Al- 
low room for thorough cultivation between these crops and the 
berries. Clean culture should be given not only the first year but 
every year. 

Pruning. — The oldest canes should be kept cut out, and each 
summer the long canes should be cut back and caused to branch. 
This will induce more fruit clusters to form. The cutting out of 
old canes at the base may be done either just after the picking 
season is over or in the winter time. (Figs. 181 and 182). 

Training. — Red raspberries are often so tall and slender that 
they require supports of some kind. If they are planted in the 
hill system, a single stake may be used to support each plant 
Fig. 183). If the bushes are growni in a solid row, a trellis may 
be made by stretching wires on posts (Fig. 184). The older canes 
are tied to this wire to keep them up when bearing their fruit. 
Two wires may be used, one above the other, with better results. 
Cross pieces are sometimes nailed on the posts and two wires at the 
same height are stapled to the same pieces. The canes are kept 
between these two wires and tied to one or the other. 

A more common plan is to keep the canes so well cut back that no 
trellis is necessary. 

Winter Protection. — Varieties are sometimes grown in the 
northern or western states which require special protection during 
the winter season. One plan is to throw a deep furrow of soil over 
from the plants on one side. Then the canes are bent down into 
the furrow and covered about two inches deep. In the spring 
they may be left covered long enough to prevent any danger from 
late spring frosts killing the blossoms. They are then uncovered 
and brought back to their original positions. 

Harvesting Berries. — Care must be exercised in picking and 
handling the crop. If mashed at picking time they will not stand 
up well in the market and are soon wet with juice. The black 
cap varieties should be picked as soon as they show the least 
purple tinge and they will complete their ripening after picking. 



BLACK RASPBERRY BUSHES 



255 



Fig. 181. 




Fig. 182. 




Figs. 181 and 182. — Black raspberry bushes before and after pruning. 



256 



BUSH FRUITS IN THE HOME GARDEN 



Over-ripe or injured berries should be discarded. If this is done by 
the picker it will avoid re-sorting of the fruit for marketing. The 
pint baskets are commonly used to pick into. The quart baskets 
may be used for the black and purple varieteies. 

Home Uses. — For home use raspberries should be used abun- 
dantly in the fresh state, and the surplus if not marketable at good 
prices should be made up into forms for use during the winter. 
Both types of raspberries are excellent if canned by the cold-pack 




Fig. 183. 



-One-year-old raspberries grown by the hill system, supported by single stakes. 
(U.S.D.A.) 



method. They may also be dried and saved without the use of cans. 
They are also made into -jams and jellies. 

Insect Enemies. — Cane borers are probably the most trouble- 
some of the insect enemies of the raspberry. The eggs are laid by 
the adult in the tips of the canes and the larvae when hatched will 
soon cause the tips to droop. When this is noticed, pruning off 
the tops will destroy them. Cut well below the drooping part 
and burn prunings. Eggs and larvae in these tips are thus destroyed. 



PERMANENCY OF THE RASPBERRY PATCH 



257 



Diseases. — Several serious diseases affect the raspberry. Crown 
gall (Fig. 185) and orange rust are quite common. Anthracnose 
and cane blight are sometimes quite serious. Great danger from 
these diseases arises from setting plants affected by them. Some 
varieties are more immune to the disease than others. Spraying 
remedies against these troubles are not commonly used. On the 




Fig. 184. — A form of wire trellis used for supporting raspberry canes. (U.S.D-A.) 

other hand, the chief means of control is to eradicate the plants 
when affected with orange rust or crown gall. Cut out the canes 
and burn the prunings when affected by cane blight or by anthrac- 
nose. 

Permanency of the Raspberry Patch. — With both the red and 
the black raspberries it is necessary to avoid crowding of the plan- 
17 



258 



BUSH FRUITS IN THE HOME GARDEN 



tation as it becomes old. Red raspberries, if allowed to spread by 
shoots from the ground, should be thinned out every few years. 
If black raspberries are cultivated close to the plants and are 
pruned as suggested by cutting out all the old canes annually, the 
plantation may last indefinitely. 

BLACKBERRIES 

As blackberries are native in such a large part of the country, 
they are less commonly grown in gardens than raspberries. They 

are however grown in gardens 
, ^ with more profit and should 

. je^ find a place in more of our 

home gardens. 

The best soils for the black- 
berries are rich, black loams. 
They are less thrifty on light 
soils. They respond well to 
additions of barnyard manure 
and green manure. 

Location. — It is well to lo- 
cate the blackberry patch 
where it will not be in the way 
of other garden crops. Along 
one side of the garden is a 
good place. The berries should 
be picked frequently during 
the ripening season and the 
patch should be located where 
it can be given attention at 
this time. 

The Kinds. — The many 
forms of blackberries are dif- 
ficult to classify. Bailey sug- 
gests the following groups: 
(1) The long clustered varie- 
ties are probably best known. 
The canes are tall and branch- 
ing. The fruits are somewhat 
thimble shaped to cylindrical. 
When ripe they are sweet slik^ dull colored. An albino form of 
this group is white or amber colored when ripe. Taylor and 




Fig. 185. — Raspberry crown gall. This 
disease may spread in the soil to peach trees. 
Do not set raspberries and peaches close to- 
gether. (Minnesota Station.) 



THE KINDS 



259 



Ancient Briton are common varieties of this group (Fig. 186). 
Mersereau probably belongs to this group. Iceberg is one of the 
albino varieties. 




Fia. 186. — The Rathbtirn blackberry is a standard old variety which is still quite popular. 

(2) The short-clustered blackberries are borne on smaller and 
weaker plants, with greenish canes, less thorny than the preceding. 
The clusters of berries are short and leafless. The berries are 



260 



BUSH FRUITS IN THE HOME GARDEN 



globose, a few in a duster. The lobes of the berries are irregularly 
set. Popular varieties of this group are Snyder, Lawton, Kitta- 
tinny, and Agawam. 

(3) The leafy-clustered blackberries have low, bushy plants 
bearing short clusters with leaves mingled with the flowers or 
berries. Early Harvest is the best commercial representative of 
this group. 




Fig. 187. — A basket of Lucretia Dewberries that taste as good as they look. (U.S.D.A). 

(4) The loose-clustered blackberries have low spreading canes 
with broad notched leaves. The berry clusters are large and the 
berries round, glossy and juicy with the lobes loosely attached. 
The so-called Wilson varieties belong to this group (Fig. 187) 

(5) The sand blackberry is low and shrubby. The prickles are 
stout and are curved. The clusters bear from one to four roundish 
berries. This is not of commercial importance. 



PRUNING BLACKBERRIES 261 

(6) The evergreen blackberries. The vines are chnging; the 
leaves are evergreen or nearly so. The berries are large, black, 
sweet, and ripen through a long period, sometimes lasting three 
months. The Oregon Evergreen is a common variety of the 
Pacific coast. 

Planting Blackberries. -The most common plan of planting 
blackberries is to prepare the ground well as for corn and then lay 
out the rows about six to nine feet apart. Set the plants about 
three to four feet apart in the rows. This will leave room between 
the rows for the use of a horse, or team in cultivating or harrowing. 

An inter-crop may be used between the rows to help maintain the 
cost of the patch until bearing time. Use a crop such as cabbage, 
beets, beans, or something which requires clean cultivation. Allow 
room between this crop and the blackberry bushes for a one-horse 
cultivator. The vines will begin to spread by means of shoots from 
the underground stems or roots. These should not be allowed to 
widen the row very much but the plants may become thicker in 
the row. 

Pruning Blackberries. — The first year the canes maj'- be allowed 
to grow to the height of eighteen to thirty inches. The top should be 
cut off and they will thus be forced to branch. Frequent pruning 
is therefore necessary during the growing season. If the bushes are 
kept low they will not require trellising. The fruit is borne on the 
canes produced the previous season. The old canes should be 
removed as soon as the crop has been picked. The easiest way to 
do this annually is to mow down the entire growth with a brush 
blade promptly after the picking is over. Very few young shoots will 
then be up enough to be injured by the blade. The work is much 
more rapid than trying to cut out and take away onlj^ certain 
canes and leave the rest. There will be enough time during the 
remainder of the summer for vigorous canes to be grown on which 
the crop is to be borne next year. Another advantage of mowing 
down the entire patch is the control of diseases and insects. 

The old canes may be removed and burned, particularly if they 
are infested with borers and with rust disease. Canes started as 
late as midsummer will need less heading back, but if the season is 
favorable, attention to this must be frequent. Some heading will 
greatly increase the crop next year. More tips for bearing fruit 
clusters will thus be formed. The pruning of lateral shoots is 
sometimes necessary. A good rule is to keep the plants low enough 
to avoid the necessity of trellising. 



262 BUSH FRUITS IN THE HOME GARDEN 

Winter Protection. — In cold climates winter killing may be 
prevented by laying down the canes in a furrow along one side of 
the row. Cover them with a light layer of soil or mulch of straw. 
Some varieties cannot be bent down very easily. In such cases the 
roots on one side must be loosened by digging. Very tender varie- 
ties are more heavily covered than others. 

In the spring the plants are raised when the buds begin to burst. 
The cover may be kept on long enough to hold back the blossom 
season late enough to prevent damage from spring frosts. 

Picking and Marketing the Crop. — Many varieties of black- 
berries change to the ripe color before they are mature. For home 
use they should not be picked too soon. For market they may be 
picked much earlier than for home use. The qualitj^ may not be 
quite so good but the handling will be much better. Picking is 
usually done in berry baskets holding one quart. Several of these 
baskets may be carried in a flat holder with a rigid handle, hanging 
on the belt or on the left arm. Pickers frequently wear gloves 
with the tips of the fingers cut away. This makes them less timid 
in getting berries that are somewhat protected. 

Uses. — Blackberries are used for eating fresh with cream and 
sugar, or they may be stewed for immediate use. The surplus 
crop may be kept for winter use by preserving, canning, or drying. 

The profits from the small patch are encouraging. If the surplus 
is sold, it usually brings a good price even in small markets. The 
crop is sometimes shipped long distances if necessary. 

Enemies of the Blackberry. — There are very few enemies of the 
blackberry. The pithy gall-maker sometimes attacks the canes and 
may be controlled by cutting away the affected parts and burning 
them. The worst disease of the blackberry is bramble rust. The 
leaves are often badly affected and it may be considered a serious 
disease. The annual pruning which has been described is very 
effective providing all the canes are mowed down and burned just 
after the picking is over. This will usually keep the rust under 
control reasonably well. 

Permanency of the Plantation. — Blackberry roots become too 
long and tend to spread badly. They should be kept within bounds 
and a wide strip for cultivation must be maintained. It may be 
necessary to turn the soil by plowing deep furrows near the plants 
and thus destroying the side suckers. The plants may also become 
too dense in the row so that they are virtually root-bound. In this 
case thinning out is necessary for success. This may be done by 



TYPES AND VARIETIES 263 

plowing out half or more than half of the row just after the mowing 
of the canes in midsummer. Those plowed out should be taken up 
and planted elsewhere, or they may be destroyed. 

By avoiding the spreading and crowding of the roots, the patch 
may be maintained somewhat permanently. 

DEWBERRIES 

The wild dewberry has been domesticated and is now frequently 
grown in gardens. The fruit closely resembles the blackberry to 
which it is related. In fact the two are often hybridized, producing 
varieties resembling one or the other. 

The plant has a trailing and climbing habit and is often grown 
upon th^ ground. In some cases the vines are supported on wires 
to protect the ripening fruit from being soiled by beating rains. 
Heavy mulches are sometimes used under the vines for this purpose. 

There are at least five native species of dewberry. Probably 
the most popular cultivated variety is the Lucretia (Fig. 187). 

Methods of propagation, planting, culture, and picking are 
practically the same as those given for the blackberry. 

CURRANTS 

Currants are grown chiefly for home use but are often sold in 
locail markets. Their uses warrant their growth and they should 
be grown more abundantly. 

Soils. — Rich soils are preferred by the currant. The roots require 
considerable moisture and the heavy soils retain moisture best. 
The roots are shallow and some mulching of the soil is advisable for 
protection during the winter and also to prevent drying out of the 
roots during the summer. If manure is used m the mulch, it will 
add considerable fertility to the soil as it rots and this will feed 
the plants sufficiently. 

Location. — Plant currant bushes along the fence row of the gar- 
den but allow room for cultivation on both sides of the row. They 
may be given a place next to the raspberries and blackberries. 

Types and Varieties. — There are two main species of the currant, 
the common red currant which has an albino variety, and the 
European black currant. There is also an American black currant 
somewhat similar to the other. 

Varieties of the red currant are the Fay and the Cherry currant. 

The currant is native of the colder climates, but has a wide 
distribution. 



264 BUSH FRUITS IN THE HOME GARDEN 

Planting the Bushes. — Autumn is probably the best time to 
plant currants. They sprout so early in the spring that it is diffi- 
cult to get the ground ready for them in time. Black varieties 
should be planted farther apart than the red varieties. Six feet 
each way for currants is a good plan. The rows of red currants 
may be five feet apart and the plants three or four feet apart in 
the row. Use strong one-year-old plants if they can be secured. 
Be sure to plant them deep as the roots tend to become too shallow. 
Firm the soil well by tramping it about the roots but leave a light 
mulch of soil on top. 

Cultivation. — Give clean thorough culture, particularly during 
the first few years after planting. A row of garden truck may be 
grown between the rows of currants for one or two years. 

Pruning. — Red currants produce their fruit on spurs which 
develop from the wood two or three years old. There should 
be a liberal supply of wood of this age. Therefore little pruning 
is desired. After the wood is four or five j^ears old, some of it 
should be cut away each year. A little trimming may be necessary 
to give the bush the proper shape. 

Black currants bear most of their fruit on wood of the previous 
season's growth. In pruning cut away the older wood as it is no 
longer of much value. This will help to keep the bush thinned 
out. Black currants tend to spread rather too much and may 
require shaping by pruning. 

Mulching and Fertilizing. — The roots of currants are near the 
surface and should be well mulched with manure in the fall and 
early winter. This will prevent heaving of the soil by freezing. 
As the manure rots it will add fertility to the soil. It therefore 
would not need to be removed in the spring. Incorporate it with 
the soil by cultivation. On most soils the application of some 
potash in addition to the barnyard manure is helpful. Use at the 
rate of two hundred pounds of muriate of potash to the acre or 
apply wood ashes liberally. Currants will stand heavy fertilizing. 

Picking Currants. — Currants are chiefly used for making jell 
and sauces. They are sometimes made into pies while fresh or 
from the canned product. In America they are seldom eaten out 
of hand. 

Currants should be picked when they are in prime condition 
before they are too ripe. There is danger of considerable loss if 
they are left too long. For winter use the crop is chiefly saved in 
the form of jell, but both black and red varieties are canned. 



VARIETIES OF GOOSEBERRIES 265 

Enemies of Currants. — The currant borer attacks the stem and 
sometimes kills considerable wood. Close pruning is a good remedy. 
Burn the prunings. 

The currant maggot attacks the fruit about the time of ripening, 
causing the berries to fall to the ground. The attacked fruit is 
rendered useless because of the maggot inside the berries. The 
scratching of cliickens about the bushes will help to control 
this pest. As the maggots crawl into the ground from the ripened 
fruit, they are picked up by the poultry. Give the chickens free 
run at this time, if the maggots are plentiful. 

The Currant Worm. — This is also called the imported currant 
sawfly. This insect destroys the leaves by eating them. They are 
therefore easily kept under control by poisoning. This should be 
done as soon as the first attacks are noticed. 

The oyster-shell scale is sometimes a serious pest on currants 
and other bush fruits. Winter sprays of lime-sulfur will help to 
keep the scale under control. 

Leaf-spot disease is a rust which attacks both black and red 
currants, causing the leaves to fall early. Ammonia copper car- 
bonate spray is probabl,y the best remedy, if the fruit is nearly 
ready to ripen. After the picking season is over another spraying 
with Bordeaux mixture is recommended. 

Renewing the Plantation.^One planting of currant bushes 
should last many years if they are properly cared for. The cost of 
starting a new plantation is very little as the plants are readily 
propagated by cuttings. Some time is required to bring them to 
full bearing and therefore the old bushes should be kept as long 
as they are vigorous. 

GOOSEBERRIES 

This crop has been given much more attention in European 
countries than in America. The fruit growing wild in America is 
often used for food. 

Gooseberries are propagated chiefly by cuttings of ripened wood. 
Mound layering is also practiced. 

Varieties of Gooseberries. — Popular varieties of American 
gooseberries are Downing, Pearl, Josselyn, and Hougton. Euro- 
pean varieties are Industry and Whitesmith. Varieties grown in 
Canada and recommended because of their resistance to mildew 
are Companion, Eagle, Glenton, Green, Queen of Trump, and 
Snowball. 



266 BUSH FRUITS IN THE HOME GARDEN 

Culture of Goosebemes.^The best soils for the gooseberry are 
those which will retain moisture well. Heavy black loam is proba- 
bly best. Clay soils, if well drained, are very suitable. The 
moisture can be retained by mulching with barnyard manure. 
Set the plants in rows six feet apart with the plants about four 
feet apart in the rows. Use one-year-old plants if you can get them. 

Clean culture is best. A row of cabbage, potatoes, or other clean 
culture crop may be grown between each two rows of gooseberries. 

Prune the vines and give them a good shape. The first year 
leave five or six shoots for each plant. Prune out the oldest wood 
each year, leaving chiefly wood of the precedmg season to bear the 
fruit. The oldest wood will bear some fruit on the spurs but these 
should usually be cut away and allow for more vigorous new growth. 

Harvesting and Use. — Gooseberries in America are usually picked 
green when about full size. In European countries they are more 
commonly allowed to ripen and eaten out of hand or stewed in this 
condition. 

The green fruit is used in making pies, sauce, and in flavoring 
other fruits. The surplus crop may be easily canned for winter use. 

Enemies. — The sawfly or imported currant worm mentioned 
under currants is also sometimes serious on gooseberries, defolia- 
ting the bushes. Spray promptly with poisons. 

The gooseberry worm attacks the fruit just before ripening. 
The worm lives inside the berries and renders the fruit worthless. 
The presence of poultry in the yard where the bushes are grown 
will render good service by destroying many of the larva?. Hand 
picking of affected fruits may be advisable. 

Mildew is a very serious disease of gooseberries. It has dis- 
couraged many growers by attacking the leaves, twigs and fruit. 
The disease spreads rapidly. The most promising remedy is the 
use of lime-sulfur wash to clean up the bushes during the dormant 
season. Use a weaker application when the buds first burst in 
early spring. Summer strength of this spray may be used later. 
If the attacks occur about the time the fruit is half grown, or later 
potassium sulfide, one ounce to two gallons of water, may be used. 

BLUEBERRIES 

Wild blueberries have long been abundantly used, but their 
growth in gardens is comparatively recent. 

Plantations may be started by selecting the wild bushes and 
transplanting them. Choose those with largest and best berries 



FLOODING 267 

and those which are most proHfic. They may be propagated by 
mound layering and cuttings. Stump layering is successfully 
practiced. Cut off bushes in early spring, leaving the stumps at 
the surface. Cover these with a very sandy soil to a depth of two 
inches. Shoots will be sent up and by fall these will be rooted in 
the soil. They may be dug up, separated and transplanted early 
the next spring. These rooted shoots are grown for a season in 
pots of well-drained, sandy soil. Give them a shady place and 
avoid watering too much. 

Soils for blueberries must be well drained and free from lime or 
limestone. Acid soils are preferred. Bog soil, if well drained, is 
excellent. Sand should be mixed with this. 

Set the bushes three or four feet apart, in rows about as far 
apart. As they reach maturity they may be thinned if they are 
crowded. 

Give the plantation clean culture. Cabbage may well be grown 
between the rows for a few years. The bushes will not bear com- 
mercially for four or five years. 

Uses. — Eaten fresh with sugar, or cream and sugar, as a dessert, 
is the chief use. They are also cooked and used as sauce, and 
made into pies, puddings, and muffins. They are easily canned 
for winter use. 

CRANBERRIES 

The growing of cranberries is restricted by natural conditions, 
as the culture is limited to regions of cool climate, rich soil, and 
plenty of water. 

The soil for cranberries should be deep, rich, and black. There 
should be a supply of sand near by to spread on top when the 
plantation is started. If an old bog is used for cranberries, it 
must be cleared of brush and roots as much as possible. Then 
plow and harrow it well. After the native growth has thus been 
subdued for a few months, the surface should be graded nicely. 
The plants are then set in a layer of sand spread a few inches deep 
all over the surface. 

Flooding of the cranberry bog should be planned. This is nec- 
essary for several purposes: (1) to prevent the heaving out of 
plants by winter freezing; (2) to retard the blossom season and 
prevent damage from late spring frosts; (3) to protect the fruit 
crop from early fall freezes; (4) to prevent attacks of insect enemies; 
(5) to protect from fires; (6) to protect from drouth. 



268 BUSH FRUITS IN THE HOME GARDEN 

A good plan is to have a dam holding a reservoir of water located 
a little above the level of the bog. The bog must be bordered by a 
bank of clay or solid earth to hold water when it is flooded. At 
any time desired the water from the reservoir and stream supply is 
turned on the bog and held any length of time needed. 

Propagation and Planting. — The cranberry is increased from 
cuttings of the stems or roots, usually the stems. Mow the stems 
ten to fifteen inches long and gather them into baskets or ventilated 
barrels to transport to the new bog. 

Mark off the sanded bog with rows of shallow furrows fifteen to 
eighteen inches apart. Cuttings may be dropped by hand along 
these furrows, or they may be gathered in bunches of five to ten, 
and these placed about one foot apart. The cuttings are then 
pressed into the soil with a broad, wedge-shaped dibber made like a 
spade, so that a man can put his weight upon it. Heavy wheels 
are sometimes devised for pressing down two rows of cuttings at 
once. The furrows are then filled by raking in the sand, and the 
whole bog is then rolled with a heavy field roller. 

After planting all the weeds and grass should be kept out and 
the cranberries given undisputed possession of the soil. During 
the first two years at least, the area should be kept comparatively 
dry at the surface, although it is best to keep the water level within 
four to six inches of the surface. 

Each season it is necessary to go over the bog and pull out all 
large weeds and any tall grass which may appear. The vines will 
tend to keep out the weeds and grass after first year or two. 

Gathering the berries is done by hand or by machines. They 
are picked in "measures" holding six to twelve quarts. From 
these they are poured into storage boxes, and kept from freezing in 
cellars until used or sold. 

They are screened, fanned, and otherwise picked over in the 
winter before going to market. They are sold in bulk from barrels 
or in quart boxes. 

Uses. — Cranberry sauce with turkey is a popular American dish. 
The fruit makes nice jell. The berries keep easily and do not need 
to be canned. Or they may be canned in cold, sterilized water, 
and will keep without cooking for a long time. 



QUESTIONS 269 

PROJECTS, EXERCISES, AND SURVEYS 

1. Raspberry projects. — Grow a patch of red or black raspberries using 
the best metliods of setting, pruning, training, culture, harvest, etc. Market 
the crop and compare the income with the total cost. 

2. The patch may be taken into the project after it is already started. The 
financial results will be more satisfactory if each year's expenses are charged 
against its crop. Careful records should be kept. 

3. Other Projects with Bush Fruits. — -Projects should be planned and 
conducted in a similar way with blackberries, gooseberries, currants, and per- 
haps with blueberries or cranberries. 

4. Practice in setting the different bush fruits should be provided each 
student. The work may be either at school, at home, or on some neighboring 
place. 

5. Propagation of bush fruits of several kinds will furnish good practice 
to students. 

6. Pruning bush fruits of all kinds is excellent work for short time exercises. 

7. Picking berries and keeping records for large picking crews is good 
practice. This work may be accompanied with practice in sorting, grading, and 
preparing berries for market. 

8. Surveys regarding bush fruits may be made in the region to determine 
a number of points: (1) best varieties of each kind grown, (2) distances of 
setting, (3) cultivation, (4) fertilizing, (5) methods of pruning and training, (6) 
yields, (7) disposal of crops, (8) age and duration of bushes. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What types of raspberries and what varieties are grown in your region? 

2. Give directions for setting raspberries; blackberries. 

3. What methods are used in propagating the young plants? 

4. What inter-cropping is allowed in young patches of bush fruits? 

5. Give the annual pruning and training for raspberries, blackberries, currants, 

gooseberries. 

6. Is winter protection advisable for any of the bush fruits in your region? 

If so how is it accomplished? 

7. Describe the harvesting of berries of each kind. 

8. Give some ways of saving each of the kinds of berries or their products for 

winter use. 

9. What are the chief insect enemies of the bush fruits in your region? Give 

remedies for each. 

10. Give the same regarding the chief diseases. 

1 1 . Discuss the different groups of blackberries. 

12. Describe the propagation of blueberries. 

13. What are the purposes of flooding a cranberry plantation? 

14. Describe the propagation and planting of cranberries. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 181, Pruning; 643, Blackberry 
Culture; 728, Dewberry Culture; 860, Cranberry Insect Problems; 887, Rasp- 
berry Culture; 900, Homemad(> Fruit Butters; 1024, Currants and Gooseberries; 
1081, Cranberry Diseases; 1128, Aphid Control; 1211, Home Canning. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



NUTS AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

It should be of general interest to students in all parts of the 
country to learn of the fruits and nuts that are to be found in all 
our markets. For the purpose of giving general and horticultural 
information on nut culture and the subtropical fruits, these are 
discussed here. 

Almonds have been grown commercially in California for many 
years (Fig. 194, E). The orchards extend into the irrigated regions 
of other southwestern states. The almond tree resembles the 

peach tree in many particulars. 
The orchards are given much 
the same culture and care as 
peach orchards. 

Trees must be protected from 
late spring frosts to avoid damage 
to the blossoms. Planting on 
hillsides to give air di'ainage is 
most practical. The use of or- 
chard heaters is also resorted to. 
Good varieties of California 
origin, named in order of popu- 
larity are: Nonpareil, IXL, and 
Ne Plus Ultra. 

Chestnuts. — These are both native and introduced. The native 
chestnuts (Fig. 188) of the northeastern part of this country are 
used for home consumption, but are seldom found in the markets. 
The native stocks are used in propagating the improved varieties 
introduced from Europe. Cleft grafting and bark grafting are 
chiefly practiced in this work. 

The Paragon and the Ridgely are good varieties grown some- 
what easily on our native stocks. Japanese varieties may come 
into more general use when they are better known. 

The chestnut blight has destroyed much of the chestnut growth 
of the East and may ruin the commercial growth of these nuts in 
America. 
270 




Fig. 188. — Native chestnuts are used for 
food. They are planted to produce stocks 
for propagation of the better sorts. 



ENGLISH WALNUTS 



271 



Native Walnuts. — Black walnuts are grown in nearly all states 
except the northern tier. They are used chiefly for home con- 
sumption or are sold in local markets. Few are shipped to distant 
markets. The large trees are readily grown from seed. They 
produce a fine quality of dark colored wood from which they 
derive the name black walnut. 

Butternuts or white walnuts, are similar to the above. The 
trees have a lighter colored wood. They have a more limited 
range and the nuts are not so generally used. 




Fig. 189. — Thin shelled pecans of the Stewart variety. (U.S.D.A.) 

Pecans are found native from Illinois and Iowa southward to the 
Gulf states. In the warmer regions they are grown commercially 
in orchards. There are a number of very fine varieties that are 
propagated chiefly by budding on seedling stocks. Large nuts 
with thin shells are much preferred in the markets (Fig. 189). 

The wdde range of soil and conditions under which pecans may be 
grown, and the prices for the nuts, should cause a more extensive 
planting of commercial orchards. 

English Walnuts (Fig. 190 ) were early introduced from Persia to 
western Europe and the New World. The trees are grown for 
shade and for nuts in all parts of the eastern coast states south- 



272 



NUTS AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



ward from Philadelphia, and in the middle parts of the country. 
The commercial nuts come chiefly from the Pacific coast (Fig. 
194, E). It is necessary to grow the trees in numbers to insure 
complete pollination. A few named varieties are propagated by 
budding and grafting, but seedlings are most commonly planted. 
The trees become very large and should be grown forty feet or 
more apart. The soil should be a deep loam with good under 
drainage of gravelly sub-soil. The usual orchard tillage is given 








.^^^. 





Fig. 190. — Concord variety of English Walnuts from budded trees in California. (U.S.D. A.) 

the groves. The roots are deep, and deep plowing once a year is 
allowable. 

Figs are grown for home use along the Atlantic coast as far 
north as Philadelphia, and in the lake region of Michigan. In the 
interior the trees must be laid down and protected in winter. 
Commercial orchards are grown along the coast southward from 
Norfolk and west to Texas. They are abundantly grown by irri- 
gation in New Mexico, Arizona, and California. 

The fruit is most generally known in our markets as dried figs, 
but the fresh fruit is becoming more popular. It is rich in sugar 
and is easily preserved in cans to be shipped to market. 



OLIVES ^73 

The bush forms are common in the southeastern states, the 
Brown Turkey variety being one of the smallest and hardiest. The 
Celeste is a little larger and about as hardy. It is used abundantly 
in orchard planting in the Gulf and Atlantic states. The Magnolia 
variety is grown in orchards of Texas southward from Beaumont. 
Trees are set from ten to fifteen feet apart in orchards. 

In California the fig becomes a very large tree. Orchards are 
set thirty to forty feet between trees. The Smyrna figs are now 
abundantly planted in California, but other horticultural forms 
are still being used a great deal. 

Figs are readily propagated from cuttings. The young trees are 
set in orchards at one to two years of age, and should bear in 
about the third season from setting. The yields are usually good 
and the results are encouraging to growers, as the trees are long 
lived and there are few enemies. 

Caprification of figs is the name given to the work of insects 
which corresponds to the pollination of other fruits. This is im- 
portant with the Smyrna fig industry. A few wild figs are grown 
in each orchard to serve as the homes of the special form of insects 
that do this work. 

Olives. — This crop is mainly produced in the countries bordering 
on the Mediterranean. Olives were first grown in America by the 
Franciscan missionaries and others in California, Arizona, and 
New Mexico. They are now grown in those states (Fig. 194, D) 
and somewhat in Florida. One and a half million trees were report- 
ed in California in 1915. 

Propagation of Olives. — The most common method of propa- 
gating olives is by tip cuttings of the current year's wood, four to 
six inches long. Remove all but a leaf or two and root the cuttings 
in sharp sand under glass with some bottom heat. They are then 
set in nursery rows for one, two, or three years, where they are 
cultivated and fertilized well. 

Seedlings are also raised and planted in commercial groves. 
Many seeds are too hard to germinate and the ends must be clipped 
to aid in germination. 

Grafting of seedlings after they are set in orchards is sometimes 
practiced. 

The Mission variety is the oldest and most common in California 
orchards. Smaller varieties such as Chemlali and Redding are also 
propagated, but chiefly as stock for orchard grafting. Sevillano is a 
large-fruited variety used for pickling. 
18 



274 NUTS AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Olive orchards are set at varying distances between the trees, 
fifteen, twenty, twenty-four, or thirty feet are found in California. 
In some countries oHves are grown as border trees along fences, 
roads, etc. 

Thorough cultivation should be given the orchard each year 
until time to sow a winter cover crop. The green manure from the 
cover crop is plowed under each spring and other fertility added if 
needed, particularly while the trees are yomig. Orchards that are 
irrigated are cultivated after each watering. 

Pruning must be done each year. At first remove the lower 
branches to make a free trunk of about thirty inches. The head 
limbs should be cut back every year. Thin out one-third of the 
small hmbs from the body of the tree. The fruits are improved by 
thorough pruning. It also aids in control of the ohve-fly and scale 
insects. Ohve-knot disease is also controlled by cutting away 
the affected parts. 

Harvesting olives is a tedious task, as they should be picked by 
hand. They are allowed to all ripen on the trees as nearly as 
possible and then are all picked at one time, if the product is to be 
used for ripe olive pickles or for oil. 

Oil is extracted from ripe olives by pressing, grindhig, and 
re-pressing. 

Pineapples. — This fruit is well known in all American markets. 
It is produced in Florida, southern California, Porto Rico Hawaiian 
Islands, the Philippines, and elsewhere. 

Propagation is successful by several methods: (1) By crowns — 
the tuft of leaves at the top of the fruit, Tliis method is not 
much used as the crowns are shipped with the fruits. (2) By slips, 
or buds produced in the angles of the leaves at the base of the fruit 
These may be saved and planted. (3) By suckers from buds on 
the old stem above ground. These make several inches of growth 
and send down roots of their own. This is probably the most 
common method of propagation. (4) By rattoons, which are under- 
ground shoots from the main stem. These form roots and may be 
left growing when the old stump is taken out. 

Soils and CwZ^wre.— Pineapples are partial to well drained soils. 
The soil need not be rich in organic matter, but it should be well 
supplied with plant food by means of commercial fertilizers. In 
Florida the spruce-pine lands are much used for growing this crop. 

The plants are usually set in beds of several rows so they may be 
worked with hoes from the sides (Fig. 191). The rows vary in 



MANGOES 



275 



width from eighteen inches to three feet with different varieties. 

Red Spanish is small and very popular. Queens and Porto 
Ricos are larger and more highly prized because of their qualities. 
Black Jamaica, Black Prince, and Smooth Cayemie are also good, 
large varieties. Blood, Sugar Loaf, and Enville are medium in size. 

Pineapples are sometimes extensively grown under partial shade 
made of lattice work. 



/ 




Fig. 191. — Pineapples in the open field showing an aisle between beds. tU.S.D.A.) 

Harvesting and Marketing. — For different markets the pine- 
apples are gathered at different stages of ripeness, depending upon 
the distances to be shipped. They are twisted off by hand, con- 
veyed to sheds, sorted as to size, ripeness, etc., and are packed for 
market. Each is wrapped in paper. They are usually shipped 
in half-barrel crates and the number contained in the crate is 
marked on the outside. Shipping may be either by freight or 
express. 

Mangoes are of tropical origin. In southern Asia they are one of 
the most common fruits. In the subtropical regions of California 



276 



NUTS AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



and Florida some good varieties are grown, and many inferior 
seedlings are found. The fruits are variable in size and shape. 
Some are as small as plums and others many times larger, weighmg 
as much as four or five pounds. The most common color is yellow 
or greenish yellow, with a possible blush of red. Good varieties 
have a skin as thin as the peach, and a juicy, mellow flesh that is 
delicious in aroma and flavor. The large stone is somewhat flat- 
tened and is either fibrous or free (Fig. 192). Some seedlings have 
a flavor suggesting turpentine, particularly in the skin. 




Fig. 192. — Fruit and seed of Haden Mango from the parent tree; one-third size. (U.S.D.A.) 

Uses. — Bulletin 127 of the Florida Station gives recipes for 
preparing this fruit in a number of ways, as jelly, marmalade, 
preserves, sweet pickles, chutney, fries, ice cream, and sundae. 
The best fruits are eaten raw as a dessert. 

Propagation. — The above mentioned bulletin gives details 
regarding propagation of improved varieties by shield budding, 
patch budding, inarching young and old trees, and striking cuttings. 

Soils for mangoes should be well drained and well fertilized. 
Thorough tillage is very desirable. Mulches of litter over the 
surface during the dry season will aid in saving the soil moisture. 



AVOCADO 



277 



Orchards. — Some distances between trees in different orchards 
are 35, 26, and 21 feet. Sandersha and Cambodiana are good 
varieties which are less affected by weather during blossom season. 
Mulgoba is a standard variety of very high quality. Other good 
varieties are Harden, Amini, and Bennett. See description of 
these in the above mentioned bulletin. In the Standard Cyclo- 
pedia of Horticulture is a good account of mango culture. 

Avocado. — This is a valuable fruit, grown extensively in many 
tropical countries. Certain forms are found native in Mexico and 




Fig. 193. — A good variety of Avocado averages over one pound in weight. The trees 
blossom in"the spring, and the fruit is mature in a little over one year. It may be held on the 
tree several months longer. (U.S.D.A.) 

Central America and are grown commercially as far north as 
Florida and Southern California. 

The trees are large and produce fine shade. The pear-shaped 
fruits viary in size from one to six inches in diameter (Fig. 193). 
The skin may be soft and pliable or hard and shell-like. There is 
one large seed in a fruit which in some cases does not fill the seed 
cavity. The firm, yellowish pulp is rich in flavor, and is highly 
prized and nutritious. The large percentage of vegetable oil which 



278 NUTS AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

it contains causes it to be used as a salad fruit; but it is used in 
many other ways. 

Propagation of the Avocado. — Trees have been propagated 
chiefly by seed until recent years. They are now more commonly 
budded by shield budding on young seedling stocks. Improved 
varieties are thus perpetuated and the results are more satisfactory. 

The Avocado Orchard. — Trees are usually transplanted to the 
orchard in early spring. If they then have many leaves these are 
sometimes partly stripped off to reduce the evaporation. A large 
ball of soil should be kept about the roots, or they may be care- 
fully shifted into boxes which hold the soil to the roots while 
being moved. 

Set the trees in rows twenty feet or more apart, in soil that has 
good drainage. The trees should be fertilized, cultivated, and in 
some regioas irrigated, as is done with oranges and lemons. Try to 
''harden off" the trees for winter. 

Yields and Harvest. — Yields are very apt to reach thousands of 
fruits per tree in case of large seedling trees, but they are more apt 
to be counted by the dozens on trees of the large budded varieties. 

The fruit is picked by hand and sorted before packing and ship- 
ping. The fruits vary in size, color, and shape. Each fruit should 
be wrapped in paper. For best shipping Georgia peach carriers 
are used. See figures in Peach Chapter. 

CITRUS FRUITS 

Under this head are included such fruits as oranges, lemons, 
grapefruits and limes. None of these are grown in regions of severe 
frosts. All of them are grown in the warmer parts of Florida, 
California, and the borders of the gulf. They all find ready 
markets in all the states and elsewhere. The United States pro- 
duces about one-third of the world's product (Fig. 194). 

Oranges are by far the most important of the citrus fruits. 
There are three regions in this country where the crop is grown: 
The central belt of Florida ; the western and southern slopes of the 
foothills of the Coast Range in California; along the Gulf coast 
from Florida to Texas. In the first two regions are grown ah 
types of oranges including the round and the Satsuma. The round 
oranges of both navel and seed types (Fig. 195) are here most 
grown for market. The Satsuma or flattened type, is the chief one 
grown along the north coast of the gulf. In Louisiana below New 
Orleans, and in the lower Rio Grande Valley and along the coast 









Fig. 194. — Maps showing trees of bearing age and younger. Each dot is for 100 acres 
of trees, except in D for 50 acres and E for 500 acres. Lemons are produced principally in 
southern California, where most of the crop is grown along the foothills on the western 
side of the Coast Range. Limes in the United States are grown commercially only in the 
southern tip of Florida and adjoining islands and keys. Grapefruit (pomelo) is grown 
in Florida, where the fruit attains excellent flavor. The industry is of increasing impor- 
tance in California. Olives are grown mostly in southern California, west of the Coast 
Range, in the Great Valley, and in the valleys opening into San Francisco Bay. The com- 
mercial production of Persian (English) walnuts in the United States is practically 
confined as yet to California and western Oregon. The production of almonds centers in 
Contra Costa County, Cal., and extends up both the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys. 
The commercial orange crop of the United States is practically confined to California 
and Florida. California has nearly two-thirds of the trees and produced in 1909 about 
three-fourths of the crop. There are a number of long-established orange orchards in the 
lower Mississippi delta in Louisiana and in Arizona. (U.S.D.A.) 



280 



NUTS AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



in southern Texas, the round oranges are also grown on a commer- 
cial scale. 

Propagation. — Almost all the old seedlings are giving way to 
plantations of budded trees. This is especially true in California. 
Stocks are produced by planting fresh seeds. In California the 
sour oranges and grapefruits are much used as stocks. In addition 
to these the rough lemon and the trifoliate orange are used in 
Florida and the Mississippi and Rio Grande regions. Oranges 
budded on the trifoliate stocks will endure frost the best. 

Shield budding is commonly used for all the varieties. The 
budding may all be done in fall, winter, or early spring and summer. 




Fig. 195. — Valencia oranges of California are the most popular of the seed-bearing varieties. 
They are almost seedless. (U.S.D.A.) 

The nearly dormant condition of trees is preferred in Florida. 
The buds are inserted about two to six inches from the ground. 
This is preferably done under lattice work. 

Setting the Orchard. — Trees one or two years old from the bud- 
ding are usually used in starting orchards. The distances between 
trees varies from 20 by 20 to 25 by 25 feet. 

Soils used for orchards are quite variable in character. But 
the stocks on which the trees are grown should be adapted to the 
character of soil. Commercial fertilizers are commonly used in 
the best orchards. 

Pruning.-— When buds are well started the nursery trees are cut 
above the bud. The new shoots from the buds are cut at a height 



ORANGES 



281 



of thirty to thirty-six inches from the ground. This makes them 
bninch and form the head of the future orchard tree. The sprouts 
below the buds must be removed persistently. 

In the orchard the trees are "shaped up " and are pruned to keep 
down diseases, and remove injured parts. The pruned surfaces 
should be painted. 

Culture. — Orchards are commonly cultivated the first half of 
the summer with cUsk harrows and other harrows. Then a winter 
cover crop is grown to be worked into the soil in spring. This green 
manure may be turned under by the only plowing given the orchard 
each year. In the irrigated orchards the dust mulch is re-estab- 
lished after each watering (Fig. 196). Cultivation is abandoned or 




Fig. 



196. — A (.'alifornia orange grove showing style of pruning trees and showing the 
irrigation furrows. (U.S.D.A.) 



neglected in some orchards in both Florida and California, but 
this is not usually a good plan. 

Harvesting and Marketing. — In California the Valencias (Fig. 
195) are picked from June to October; navels from November to 
April, and seedlings in Spring. Most of the Florida crop is moved 
from October to May or June. Figure 197 shows an orange picking 
scene in California. 

The bulk of the orange crop in America is handled through large 
associations that have central packing houses and market only 
well graded and wrapped fruits (Fig. 198). They are shipped in 
two-compartment boxes having a capacity of two cubic feet. 
Boxes half this size are used for the mandarin types. 



232 



NUTS AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



Enemies. — Many forms of scale insects attack oranges and 
other citrus fruits. There are also red spiders, plant lice, rose 
beetles, and other insects attacking the orchards. The methods of 
control are spraying and fumigating under movable tents with 
hydrocyanic acid gas. Spraying in Florida and fumigation (Fig. 
199) in California are the general rules. 




Fig. 197. — Oranges must be picked from the trees. Those which fall to the ground are 
considered worthless. (U.S.D.A.) 

Common diseases of the trees are : gum disease, root-rot, trunk- 
rot, wither-tip, twig-blight, melanose, and canker. 

Frost is the most serious enemy of citrus fruits in America. The 
chief remedy is to have the wood well ripened up before winter. 
The use of orchard smudges is often very effective. Fruits are 
picked from near the ground first, to avoid frosting. 

Grapefruit. — This is one of the citrus fruits of Florida, California, 
Arizona, and the West Indies. It is well known in all markets of 



GRAPEFRUIT 



283 



America. It is slightly bitter in taste, and for this reason is not so 
popular as the orange for a breakfast or dessert fruit. 

The name comes from the fact that the fruits may be borne in 
clusters resembling a bunch of grapes. 

The trees are beautiful and symmetrical and bear fruit for many 
years. They are propagated by budding, the most hardy stocks 




Fig. 198. — Interior of an orange jiacking house, Highland, Cal. Hopper and brushes 
are used for dirty fruit. All fruit is graded according to size, quality, maturity, etc. 
(U.S.D.A.) 

being the trifoliate orange stocks. Their own seedlings are also 
used as stocks for budding. 

The trees are set eighteen to twenty-five feet apart each way in 
the orchard, depending on the kind of stocks used for budding. 
They are cultivated, sprayed, pruned, and fertilized with much 
skill and attention by commercial growers. 

Duncan, Hall, and Pernambuco are probably the best varieties 
grown in Florida, Duncan being the most popular. In California 
the most popular variety is Marsh. 



284 



NUTS AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



Lemons. — This crop is much less grown in Florida than before 
the heavy killing of trees by frost in 1895. The main crop of the 
United States is now grown in southern California near the coast. 
A period of low prices for lemons discouraged growers in both 
these states. 

The fruit is picked a number of times each year. Prices are 
best in summer and regions that can produce good summer fruit 
have a decided advantage. Growers try to delay ripenmg from 
spring until summer. They also try to hasten the ripening of the 
fall fruit so as to get it on the summer market. Special processes 




Fig. 199. — Tent over orange trees for fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas to kill scale 
insects. This method is more common in California than elsewhere. (U.S.D.A.) 

are sometimes resorted to in order that the fruit will assume a ripe 
color. 

The culture and care of lemons is similar to that described for 
oranges. Much more attention must be given to the pruning of 
lemon trees. 

There is more trouble from brown rot disease on lemons, and the 
cost of producing the lemon crop is greater in many particulars 
than the orange crop. 

The sorting and packing of lemons is done chiefly by hand. The 
boxes are similar for the two fruits. 

Limes. — These acid fruits are produced commercially on the 
extreme southwestern coast of Florida and the adjacent islands. 



QUESTIONS 285 

The product used at soda fountains in America is brought chiefly 
from the West Indies and from Mexico. The management of 
orcliards is similar to that of other citrus fruits. 

EXERCISES 

1. Specimens. — Find specimens in youi- markets or elsewhere of the dif- 
ferent nuts and subtropical fruits. 

2. Study these specimens as to market qualities and botanical structures, 

3. Fruit Sources. — By inquiry from dealers and by reading, determine the 
source of each of these products. Labels on packages will aid in this. 

4. Marketing Methods. — Learn all you can as to the methods of packing, 
shipping, pi ices and probable profits to the growers. Visit fruit packing houses, 
sloraec houses, driers, canneries, etc. Study methods of coopeiativc maiket- 
iiig ;.ssociations. 

QUESTIONS 

L What kinds of tree nuts are sold in your markets? 

2. What kinds grow in your state? Wild? Commerciallv? 

3. Describe any nut groves you have seen or read about. 

4. Describe the growing of pineapples. 

5. How are they propagated? 

6. What can be said of the value of the avocado as a market fruit? 

7. What are some uses of mangoes? 

8. Tell what you can of the growing of grapefruits for market. 

9. What are the different types of oranges and where are they p'cduced? 
10. Describe the work and tell of the value of a fruit growers association. 

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 674, Citrus Thrips in California 
and Arizona; 696, Handling and Shipping Citrus Fruits in the Gulf States; 
700, Pecan Culture; 794, Citrus Fruit Improvement; 843, Pecan Insects and 
their Control; 933, Spraying Citrus Trees in Florida; 1011, Wooly White Fly 
in Florida Citrus Groves; 1096, Prevention of Damage from Frost; 1122, Citrus 
Fmit Growing in Gulf States; 1129, Pecan Diseases; 1237, Pineapple Culture 
in Florida. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
LEGUMES AND FERTILIZERS— SOIL AMENDMENTS 

Four important plant foods are likely to be exhausted by 
cropping, leaching, and washing from agricultural soils. These 
are nitrogen (N), phosphoric acid (P2O5), potash (K2O), and lime 
(CaO) . Besides these four ingredients, another important factor is 
humus — a product from the decay of organic matter. 

Nitrogen is the most important plant food in the soil (1) because 
it is most likely to be lacking; (2) because it is ordinarily the most 
expensive to replace by the purchase of commercial forms; and (3) 
because its absence from the soil reduces the vigor of growth and 
also reduces the protein content of the plants. 

The problem of supplying nitrogen for gardens and fields becomes 
more serious as the commercial sources of nitrogen become exhaus- 
ted. Nitrate of soda from South America is already almost too 
expensive to be used by farmers. This is true of ammonium 
sulfate, dried blood, and meat scraps. The two latter and cotton 
seed meal are so valuable as stock feeds that they are no longer 
extensively used as fertilizers. 

One important source of nitrogen still remains as cheap as it 
was before the world war, namely, atmospheric nitrogen. This is 
obtained by the growth of legumes, such as clovers, beans, peas, 
vetches and others. 

Value of Legumes. — It has been known for hundreds of years 
that members of the clover family, when plowed under, would 
greatly increase the growth of the crops which follow them. It has 
been only a generation since the real reason for this has been 
known. Since this reason was discovered the use of legumes to 
improve the soils has greatly increased. 

The power of plants of this family to obtain nitrogen from the 
air is not found in other plants. The gathering of the nitrogen 
from the air is dependent upon the presence of special kinds of 
bacteria to suit the various groups (Figs. 200 and 201). 

Soils already containing these bacteria are said to be naturally 
inoculated. Others need to be inoculated by some artificial means 
to make the gathering of nitrogen from the air possible. 

Methods of Inoculation. — Several practical methods of inocu- 
286 



METHODS OF INOCULATION 



287 




lation of soils for the growth of legumes are in use. When once 
inoculated thoroughly the soil will not need it again for the same 
group, unless long periods elapse between years when those legumes 
are grown on that soil. 

The soil-spreading method is to get a little top soil from a place 
where the same plants have been very successfully grown, spread 
it on the new place and harrow it in 
before the hot sun has any chance to 
kill the bacteria. The rate of spread- 
ing the soil may be about 200 to 500 y' 
pounds per acre. The amount re- 
quired will depend chiefly upon the 
method of spreading. More soil will 
be required if it is to be spread with 
a shovel. A rapid plan is to spread 
the soil with a lime spreader or fertilizer 
drill. It may also be sown broadcast 
by hand, as seed is sown. 

The aglutination method is to take 
a few shovels full of good, rich soil 
from a spot having plenty of the bac- 
teria, and put it in a barrel or tub of 
water, add a halfpint of liquid glue and 
a quart of lune water to ten gallons of the liquid. Stir thoroughly 
and wet the seeds with this liquid. Put the seeds in a box and pour 
the liquid over them and mix with a shovel or hoe until all are 
wet. Then spread the seeds on a smooth floor or canvas to dry 
in the shade. Sow them as soon as they are dry enough, and har- 
row them in very promptly. 

The building-up method is founded on the fact that nearly all 
soils have at least a few bacteria for all of the groups of legumes. 
If some seeds of the legumes are sown with other crops for a few 
yea,rs they will naturally increase the number of legumes and 
rather complete inoculation may be the result. 

Artificial cultures of bacteria for most of the legumes are fur- 
nished free by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and some 
state experiment stations. They are sold at about two dollars per 
acre by seed companies and others. In general the liquid or 
gelatin cultures are to be mixed with sterilized water and then the 
seed is to be wet with it and dried before planting. Special direc- 
tions accompany each of the packages of artificial culture. 



S 



Fig. 200. — Soybeans, when well 
supplied with bacteria and nod- 
ules, will gather much nitrogen 
from the air and improve soils. 



288 



LEGUMES AND FERTILIZERS 



Use of Legumes as Winter Covers and Catch Crops. — In gardens, 
orchards and fields there are many opportunities to grow some of 
the legumes either in summer or winter, between the times when 
the main crops are growing. 

Winter annual legumes may be used for growth in winter seasons 
in all regions where the winters are not too severe. Winter or 
hairy vetch, Augusta vetch in the Gulf states, and crimson clover. 
These may be sown any time from mid-summer until about frost 
time. Frequently rye is mixed with them for seeding to help 
make a dense cover. 




rij. 201. — White clover, showing the effect of inoculation with nitrogen-gathering bacteria. 
The pot at the right was inoculated and that at the left was not. 



Sumnler annual legumes may be grown after early spring crops, 
as after early potatoes, or after oats or wheat. Cowpeas and 
soybeans (Figs. 200 and 202) may be used in this way, and velvet 
beans may be grown in the southern states. 

Spring annuals, such as spring vetch and Canada field peas, 
may be sown as early as the ground can be worked. They may 
precede corn, cotton, melons, beans and other summer crops. 

Perennial legumes, such as red clover, alsike clover, white clover, 
(Fig. 201) sweet clover, and alfalfa, are good improvers of soil. 
They may be used in longer rotations of crops but are not so valu- 
able for catch crops or cover crops, as they are too slow in their 
early growth. 

Addition of Organic Matter and Humus. — When green manure 



OTHER GREEN MANURES 



289 



and barnyard manure are plowed under, or otherwise mixed witii 
the soil, the vegetable matter may be of very great benefit to the 
soil. As it rots humus is formed. All soils are improved by the 
addition of humus unless they are already well supplied. 

It causes them to hold moisture in better form and longer 
between rains so that plants can use it. The presence of humus 
also makes a better home for beneficial bacteria; it helps to make 
plant foods available for the roots to use. 




Fif 



-Cowpeas (left) and soybeans (right") used to improve soils for gardens, orcharda, 
etc. (Tennessee Station.) 



Besides the addition of humus the turning under of green manure 
will also add all the forms of plant food which they contain. If 
legumes are turned under the chief plant food is nitrogen, but 
with all forms of green manure some of all three important fer- 
tilizers are added, which soon become available for use of the 
growing crop. That is, nitrogen, phosphate, and potash are al- 
ways present and as the manure rots it liberates these for the use 
of the crops. 

Other Green Manures. — It is, therefore, very beneficial to most 
soils to mix green manure of any kind with them. When winter 
rye, for example, is grown during the fall, winter, and early spring, 
and then turned under, it takes from the soil the three main plant 
foods and saves them for the garden, orchard, or other crop. 
19 



29.0 LEGUMES AND FERTILIZERS 

Barnyard Manure for Gardens.^One of the best ways of sup- 
plying both plant food and humus to garden and orchard soils is to 
apply barnyard manure. Manure is usually most abundant in 
the winter and spring seasons. These are also convenient and 
otherwise suitable tunes for adding manure to soils. 

A good method is to spread the manure abundantly and 
evenly on the surface and then plow or disk it under. If plowed 
under it will be less in the way of cultivators or other tillage 
implements. 

Manure is sometimes used as mulch on the surface of garden 
soils. This mulch may be applied during the growing season, 
between rows, after early cultivating. It is put on top of the 
asparagus and rhubarb roots after the tops are dead in the fall. 
It is put around bushes and slu'ubs as a winter covering. 

In home gardens where manure is produced on the place there 
are two good plans to follow in the management of the manure. 
Fresh manure may be applied to some part of the garden as fast 
as it is produced. Tliis is probably the best method of saving all 
the plant food in the manm'e. It is readily taken up by the soil 
and is then used by the growing plants. 

Composting Manure. — Another good plan of saving manure 
for the garden is by means of a compost heap. It rots the htter 
and makes it finer. It kills weed seeds and many disease germs. 
It prevents danger when heavy applications are made to the 
garden. It prevents loss by leacliing. If properly made the 
compost heap will not become too hot. 

Making the Compost. — A good place to make a compost heap 
is at the edge or near one end of the garden, where it will be handy 
for use. On the gromid spread a layer of barnyard manure about 
eight to twelve inches thick. Then put over this a layer of thick 
grass sods. Repeat these alternate layers until the compost is 
four to eight feet high. Keep the top somewhat level to catch the 
rainfall. If no rains occur at first the compost should be watered 
well. If there is not enough manure ready to make a large compost 
heap at one time the area and height may be easily increased 
afterward. 

Potato vines, corn stalks, tomato vines, cabbage stems, weeds 
and many other garden wastes may be added to the compost heap 
from time to tune. They will make good manure. 

Composted soil will be valuable in hotbeds, coldframes, seed 
beds, and for any spot where very rich soil is wanted. 



FERTILIZER FORMULAS 



291 



Cautions in Using Manure. — If too much manure is placed 
"under tiie row" or "under the hill" as sometimes practiced, the 
plants are Ukely to suffer from lack of moisture. This is worse in 
dry seasons. The pad of manure under the plants may prevent the 
rise of water through capillary action. 

The remedies are to make light applications more frequently and 
to thoroughly mix the manure with the soil by tillage implements. 
When manure is well rotted it does not have this injurious effect. 




Fiu. 203. — Effect of fertilizing a neglected orchard. Yield of fertilized row 46 barrels, 
unfertilized row nine barrels. (Ohio Station.) 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 

Orchards and gardens, as well as field crops, often need plant 
food supplied in the form of commercial fertilizers (Fig. 203). 
Conditions are so variable that no fixed formulas can be followed 
in all cases. Soils differ widely in composition, and plants differ in 
their needs. 

Fertilizer formulas are expressions showing the percentage 
composition of the three main ingredients. It has nothing what- 
ever to say about the source of the materials used. A formula 



292 LEGUMES AND FERTILIZERS 

good for Irish potatoes may be expressed 4-8-10, or 3-6-8. In 
most states of this country the first number indicates the number of 
pounds of nitrogen (not ammonia) in each hundred pounds of the 
mixed fertilizer. The middle number refers to the amount of 
available phosphate. The last number, to the potash. The order 
is N-P-K. In Texas, Tennessee, and a few other states, the first 
number refers to the phosphate the second to nitrogen, and the last 
to potash. P-N-K. By inquuy find what the formulas mean in 
your state. 

Home mixtures may be made to suit the conditions better than 
ready-made preparations. For example, soils are sometimes so 
rich in nitrogen that they will not produce good yields of Irish 
potatoes or sweet potatoes. These soils need to be balanced in 
their plant food by applying phosphoric acid and potash only. A 
complete fertilizer, contammg the three main plant foods, would 
not remedy the difficulty. 

In other cases nitrogen may be the very thing that is lacking. 
If so it would be best to use fertilizer that is not rich in phosphoric 
acid and potash, but is rich in nitrogen. 

Needs of soils and crops are not very difficult to determine. 
Crops that are expected to make much leaf growth in yielding 
theh crop need an abundance of nitrogen. This is true of lettuce, 
cabbage, cauliflower, celery and others. 

Crops that produce seed crops or fruit require much phosphoric 
acid. Potash adds strength to stems and vigor throughout. 

Indications of needs may be detected in the growth (Fig. 204). 
Root crops forming too much top and not enough storage in the 
underground parts, need less nitrogen and more potash and phos- 
phoric acid. If the leaf growth of trees or any plants is limited or 
not of a good deep color, the indication is lack of nitrogen. 

When crops fall down too badly in the wind, the indication is 
for more potash. Soils that have been farmed for a long time, 
sandy soils, and peaty soils are lilcely to need potash. 

If the yield of vegetables or fruits is light as compared to what it 
should be, the soil probably needs more available phosphoric acid, 
and perhaps some more potash. In this regard watch the toma- 
toes, melons, cucumbers, okra, peppers, eggplant, corn, and other 
vegetables in which the crop is the real fruit of the plant. 

Sources of Nitrogen. — -In the commercial form nitrogen or 
ammonia may be purchased as nitrate of soda, containing fifteen 
to sixteen per cent of nitrogen, and sulfate of ammonia containing 



SOURCES OF NITROGEN 



293 



about twenty per cent of nitrogen. It is also abundant in meat 
scraps, dried blood and cottonseed meal. All of these materials 
are very expensive and should be used with great care and good 
judgment. Nitrate of soda is most likely to be wasted as it is 
soluble in water and may be washed or leached away unless the 
growing crop uses it up immediately. Plant the crop first, and 




Fig. 204. — After being starved for years this tree was made productive by feeding with acid 
phosphate and nitrate of soda. (Ohio Station.) 

after it is up and growing well the nitrate may be applied and 
cultivated into the soil. Some of the other forms in which nitrogen 
it. used are very slow in changing to available forms ; some of these 
are garbage tankage, leather scraps, hair, etc. The source of 
nitrogen should be known to the user. This is a strong argument 
for the home mixing of fertilizers. The agricultural value is not 



294 LEGUMES AND FERTILIZERS 

based upon brand but upon the composition of the mixture and 
the sources of the elements. 

The purchase of nitrogen-bearing fertiUzers is least profitable 
because nitrogen can be so easily secured by the growing of legumes. 

Sources of Phosphoric Acid. — Ground rock phosphate is the 
chief source of phosphate used in commercial fertilizers. It is a 
combination of phosphoric acid with lime and is mined abundantly 
in South Carolina, Tennessee, Florida and elsewhere. It may be 
applied to soils in the "raw" condition or may be treated with 
sulfuric acid. In the latter form it is called acid phosphate or 
superphosphate, and is much more available as plant food. It 
contains sixteen to twenty per cent phosphoric acid. 

Ground bone is also rich in phosphate and may be used in the 
steamed form or may also be treated with sulfuric acid. When 
merely ground and steamed it is slowly available for plants and 
will last several seasons. It may contain twenty per cent of 
phosphoric acid and four per cent nitrogen. When treated with 
acid it becomes soluble and is more quickly used by plants. 

Bone tankage is another source of phosphoric acid. It is obtained 
from packing houses, and is quite variable in composition. 

Sources of Potash. — Wood ashes furnish potash for the home 
garden. Unleached hard-wood ashes contain from three to eight 
per cent of potash, with an average of about six per cent. They 
also contain some phosphoric acid and fully thirty per cent of 
lime. For use as fertilizer ashes may be either spread on the soil as 
made, or may be stored under cover till needed. 

Saltpeter waste contains five to twelve per cent of potash. It 
must be bought only on analysis. 

Sea-weeds and similar plants are rich enough in potash to 
warrant burning them to secure this product. The ashes contain as 
much as five per cent of soluble potash. 

Potash is obtained from burning or rotting tobacco stems, corn 
cobs, cottonseed hulls, straw, weeds, and other things. 

Potassium nitrate contains about twelve to fourteen per cent of 
potash. 

Potassium carbonate from the Caucasus region is often ninety 
per cent pure. It may be used as fertilizer when necessary. 

The Strassfurt potash salts, known as car-nall-ite, kainit, and 
syl-vin-it, are ground and used as fertilizer, containing twelve 
per cent or less of potash. They are usually refined, yielding two 
concentrated products: (1) sulfate of potash with forty-eight per 



USES OF LIME 



295 



cent actual potash, and (2) muriate of potash, with fifty per cent 
actual potash. 

Potash is now obtained in commercial amounts from wastes in 
cement factories and u'on refineries. 



LIMING OF SOILS 

Many garden, orchard, and field soils need liming. Our soils 
may be sour and need lime for that reason. Many legumes need 
hnie (Fig. 205) so that their special bacteria can live in the soils. 

Uses of Lime. — There are a number of beneficial effects resulting 
from the liming of soils. 

1. Lime will correct the sourness of soils. Nearly all crops are 
less productive on sour soils. The application of lime will make 
these crops thrive if other conditions are favorable. 





Fig. 205. — Lime increases the growth of clover and other legumes. Right from limed plot, 
left from unhmed plot. The clover improves the soil foi other crops. 

2. Lime tends to correct the stickiness of clay soils and makes 
them more loose and porous. They will then not bake and crack so 
badly as a result of heavy rains followed by dry weather. 

3. Sandy soils are made firmer by the use of lime on them. 
They will plow better, hold moisture and plant food better, etc. 

4. Liming of soils aids in the decay of vegetable matter which 
thej^ contain. When green manure and barnyard manure are 
turned under Ume should be applied soon after. The converse is 
also true. Organic matter must be applied to soils that are limed. 
Otherwise the humus matter would soon be gone and the net 
result would be detrimental. 

5. Plant food in soils is made more available by the action of 
lime. At first the apparent result of liming would be much the 
same as adding a complete fertilizer to the soil. The growing crop 
is able to take from the soil more than it could without the action 



296 LEGUMES AND FERTILIZERS 

of lime. The continuous liming without the use of manure, will 
therefore deplete the soil. 

"Lime and lime without manure 
Makes both farm and farmer poor." 

6. Nearly all kinds of beneficial bacteria in soils will thrive 
better in the presence of lime. This is notably true of the bacteria 
which aid legumes in obtaining nitrogen from the air. 

7. Lime undoubtedly .serves as a direct plant food for some 
legumes. This is most notable in the growth of alfalfa. Analysis 
shows that this plant contams considerable lime in its ash. 

Forms of Lime. — There are several forms of lime used for gar- 
dens, orchards, and fields. These differ in their action, perma- 
nence, cost, etc. (Fig. 206). 

Ground limestone is one of the best forms to use. In regions 
where it can be obtamed it is cheaper than other forms of lime. 
Its action is not so rapid as the burned lime, but it is more lasting 
in its effects. It should be ground very fine and may be applied at 
the rate of one, two, or more tons per acre without any fear of 
injury to soil or crop. 

Freshly burned lime is very caustic in its action. It burns out the 
organic matter from soils very quickly and has a ver}^ pronounced 
effect in aiding growth of clover, alfalfa, etc. Its effects are 
not so lasting as other forms of lime. It should be used in quanti- 
ties rangmg from one-fourth or one-half ton per acre upward. 
Before spreading, it is usually put in a pile to air-slake. Some 
water may be added to help start the action. After it is in the form 
of fine powder it may be spread. It nearly doubles in bulk and 
weight during the process of air -slaking. 

Hydrated lime is about the same m its action as the air-slaked 
lime already described. It is the by-product of dealers and kilns 
where fresh lime is sold. It is sold either in bulk or in bags, and is in 
the form of fine po wder. It usually becomes rather old and takes 
up more moisture than the freshly slaked lime. The cost is often 
out of proportion to its value as compared with other forms of lime. 

Ground oyster shell is similar in action to ground limestone and 
may be used at the same rates. The price may be low enough to 
warrant its use in regions near its source. 

Hard-wood ashes contain, when not leached, thirty to thirty-five 
per cent of lime besides three to eight per cent of potash. When 
obtainable they should be used on gardens, about the bush fruits, 
and in orchards. 



WHEN AND HOW TO USE LIME 



297 



When and How to Use L'ime. — The best time to apply hme to 
soil is after plowing. It may be mixed with the soil by harrowing. 
It should not be plowed under. When soils are plowed in the fall, 
wait until spring to spread the lime, as too much of it would leach 
away durmg the wmter. 

Many methods of spreading lime are in use. Throwing it with 
shovels is rather slow and it is not very evenly distributed by this 



ZOOO LBS. H/iRDWOOD ASHES 



ITSGL BS. GROUND ROCK OR OYSTER SHELL 



/5a/ro/786LBS. A/ff-SLACKED UME 



!52l LBS. HYDRATED UME 




/OOO LBS, BURRED L/ME 



Fig. 206. — Chart showing the different amounts of materials required to furnish the equiv- 
alent of 1000 pounds of lime. 

method. Special lime spreaders and lime hoods for manure spread- 
ers are in use. It is sometimes hauled out and left in small piles to 
slake and is then spread by hand from these piles. It is better to do 
the slaking in one large pile and the hauling afterwards. Ground 
limestone and oyster shell are the most agreeable forms to handle. 



TILLAGE 



Soils may be improved both physically and chemically by 
proper tillage. Stirring the soil will greatly aid the growth of 
garden crops and fruits. 



298 



LEGUMES AND FERTILIZERS 



Open or general tillage consists chiefly of plowing and harrowing 
the soil before the crops are planted. In gardens this may be done 
in either fall or spring, or both. 

Deep plowing is necessary for root crops such as potatoes, beets, 
etc. The deep feeding crops such as trees and corn, also need the 
soil stirred to a great depth. Dynamiting (Fig. 207) will loosen 
the hard subsoil. This is often done before trees are planted. 

Fall plowing is most beneficial for heavy soils. The winter 




Fig. 207. — Blasting orchard tree holes is often VBry beneficial The growth of young trees 
may be greatly increased. (New Jersey Station.) 



freezing of the turned soil will pulverize and aerate it. This 
renders it more friable and makes it better for gardening. 

Spring plowing is necessary when a winter cover crop is grown 
and is to be turned under as green manure before the garden is 
planted. 

Often it is a good plan to replow in the spring. If the fall plowing 
turned under sod land, this may be broken deeper in the spring. 
Plow cross-wise of the fall plowing unless the slope of the land 
prevents this. 



INTERTILLAGE 



299 



Repacking After Plowing. — If land is broken only a short time 
before seeding time it should be repacked by the use of a harrow, 
planker, or roller. Much packing is not desired for potatoes, but 
for other garden crops the roller or other packer should be used 
and this followed by a spike-tooth harrow. If heavy rains come 
after spring plowing they will pack the soil enough, particularly if 
the soil is rather heavy. 

Packing the soil establishes the capillary connection between 
the top furrow slice and the moist soil below. This will prevent 
much of the injury from drouth. 



-■^ ,- ^ \"I ~ 


-1 








■■ 




. ■ ,' < 


;A^^^^^^:vc^l 






Fig. 208. — A young orchard grown under the clean culture cover crop system on rather 
level land. (Indiana Station.) 

Keeping the surface loose is probably the most important 
factor in successful tillage of garden and orchard soils (Fig. 208). 
It prevents crusting and baking and large clods are not formed. 
The loose soil on the top will serve as a mulch and prevent the 
escape of moisture by evaporation. 

Intertillage should be frequent, and in most cases it may be 
rather shallow in the garden. It may be done by use of small- 
shovel cultivators which are very sharp at the points. The use of 
wide shovels leaves the ground too much in ridges and allows it to 
become too dry. Keep the surface reasonably level and finely 



300 



LEGUMES AND FERTILIZERS 



crumbled. Rains tend to spoil this mulch and the cultivator is 
again needed. 

For hand work the garden rake is good for intertillage. Wheel 





Fig. -U'J. — Siix-jeui-uld trees gruwii under the sud mulch Bysteni uf orchard iiiuuagenient. 

(Indiana Station.) 

hoes are also useful in small gardens where a horse cultivator 
cannot be used. 

The Sod-Mulch System »f orchard management consists of 
growing a permanent grass crop, as timothy or orchard grass, in 




h n, Jll) ( uiti\ntiMii 111. K-iises size of fruit. Tliesc pdcs show relative sizes of the same 
variety treated by the sod and clean culture methods. (Indiana Station). 

the orchard as shown in the figure 209. This crop of grass is cut 
once or twice a year and left on the sod or spread under the trees. 
The mulch helps to protect the wind-fall fruits and to make the 
work of pruning and spraying more pleasant in the winter time. 



QUESTIONS 301 

As compared with the clean culture method, the fruit is smaller 
(Fig. 210), the insects and diseases are worse, drouth may be more 
harmful, and the growth of trees is less. 

Orchard tillage may consist of three or four operations. Plow 
between the bearing trees hi spring. Harrow soon after this to 
prevent the drying of clods. Dig around the trees if the plowing 
leaves the soil unturned. Watch the surface and prevent its 
becoming hard or crusty. Use the disk harrow or other orchard 
im{)lenient several times until midsummer. Then sow a cover 
crop to remain all winter. 

Young orchards should be given such tillage as are required by 
cabbage or potatoes. Such clean-culture crops may be grown 
between the fruit trees for a few years. 

SURVEYS, PROJECTS, AND EXERCISES 

1. Manures. — Determine by a questionnaire (1) what legumes are grown 
in the region ior cover crops, or green manuring; (2) which ones require arti- 
ficial inoculation; (3) stage of growth at which they are plowed under; (4) 
other crops grown ior green manure; (5) other sources of humus for soils; (6) 
amoimts of l)arnyard manure used; (7) crops following these appUcations: (8) 
care of manure; (9) comj)osting; (lo) results of manuring; etc. 

2. Liming and Fertilizing. — Make similar questionnaires regarding the 
liming of soils, the use of commercial fertilizers, and home mixing. 

3. Tillage practices may be studied by making an inquiry regarding fall 
plowing, spring plowing, depth of plowing for certain crops, rolling, harrowing, 
shallow intertillage, etc. 

4. Growing crops as home projects may be so planned as to demonstrate 
the effect of certain practices. (1) Crimson clover as a winter cover crop with 
and without lime. (2) Special fertilizers on truck crops. (3) Deep fall plowing 
compared with shallow spring plowing for the garden. (4) Deep and shallow 
intertillage for potatoes, for corn, for the orchard. (5) Manure and no manure. 
(6) Barnyard manure compared with green manure. (7) Irrigation. 

5. Exercises in the laboratory should be tried to show floculation of clay 
by liming; solubihty of potash in wood ashes; alkalinity of wood ashes and 
hme; acidity of certain soil samples; the amount of organic matter in certain 
samples; solubility of acid phosphate; insolubihty of rock phosphate; effect of 
sulfuric acid on the latter; solubility of nitrate of soda, ammonium sulfate, 
muriate and sulfate of potash, and other common fertilizers. (See details in 
the author's School and Home Gardening.) 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the four nT^st important plant foods in soils? 

2. Discuss the sources of nitrogen for soils. 

3. How do legumes aid in supplying nitrogen? 

4. Give .several methods of inoculation for legumes. 

5. Mention good legumes to use in the upbuilding of soils (1) summer annuals 

(2) winter annuals, (3) others. 

6. What are some good methods of adding organic matter and humus to soils? 

7. Describe the making of a compost heap. 



302 LEGUMES AND FERTILIZERS 

8. Give reasons for the home inixing of fertiUzers. 

9. How can you ascertain the kind of fertihzers needed by a soil? 

10. What are the chief forms and sources of pliosplioric acid? 

11. What are the chief forms and sources of potasla? 

12. Enumerate the benefits from the use of hme on soils. 

13. What other material should be added also? Why? 

14. Compare the use of ground limestone with fresh-burned lime. 

15. Tell when and how to use lime. 

16. Give the benefits of deep tillage. 

17. Give reasons for fall plowing. 

18. Discuss repacking after plowing. 

19. How is a soil mulch maintained? 

20. What are its benefits in the garden and orchard? 

21. What methods of soil maintenance or unprovement are practiced in your 

region? 

22. State which formula expresses the higher grade of fertiUzer, 2-5-4 or 3-8-8. 

Give reasons for your answer. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 339, Alfalfa; 455, Red Clover; 
515, Vetches; 579, Utilizing Crimson Clover; 646, Crimson Clover Seed; 690, 
Field Pea; 693, Bur Clover; 716, Management of Sandy Lands; 757, Commer- 
cialVarieties of Alfalfa, 761, Management of Muck Land; 8J5, Drainage of Irri- 
gated Lands; 820, Sweet Clover: Utilization; 836, Sweet Clover: Harvesting; 
865, Irrigation of Alfalfa; 882, Orchard Irrigation; 921, Principles of Liming 
of Soils; 931, Soybeans in the Cotton Belt; 978, Barnyard Manure ; 1143, 
Lespedeza; 1148, Cowpeas; 1121, Alsike Clover. 

The Fertility of the Land, Roberts, Macmillan Co.; Crops and Methods 
for Soil Improvement, Agee, Macmillan Co; Manures and Fertilizers, 
Wheeler, Macmillan Co. 



CHAPTER XXV 
PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

Too few who need to spray know the prmciples of spraying. It 
is necessary that the grower know what to spray for, and what and 
A'hen to spray (Fig. 211). There are several purposes in view 
when a spraymg compaign is conducted. (1) To prevent disease, 
(2) to fight insects which suck juices of plants. (3) to kill insects 
which eat the leaves or other tissues of the plants. The materials 




Fig. 211. — For spraying apple urohards lime-suIfur and arsenate of lead (shown above) 
are better than Bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead, (shown below). Upper and lower 
lots each from a tree sprayed three times. (Illinois Station.) 

used for these three purposes are of different character. One 
should not be used for the other, but sometimes the poison sprays 
for chewing or eating insects may be combmed with the materials 
used to prevent disease. 

Spraying pays in dollars. The best orchardists spray intelligently. 
They spray for definite purposes, with suitable materials at proper 
times. Spraying will then improve the quality of the product and 
increase the yield. This is true of both fruits and vegetable 
crops (Fig. 212). 

Spray Materials to Pro vent Disease. — Nearly all of the plant 
diseases are caused by fungous growth. A few, however, are from 

303 



304 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 



bacteria attacks. The chief spray materials used to prevent dis- 
ease are Bordeaux mixture, hme-sulfur, ammoniacal carbonate of 
copper, and Hvers of sulfur. The first two mentioned are more 
permanent and are not easily washed off by rains when once dry on 
the plants. The other two materials are used in cases where it is 
necessary to wash the fruit or other product before being eaten by 
people. They may be used to spray fruits that are nearly mature. 
Another fungicide is copper sulfate used on the dormant form of 




Fig. 212. — Spraying improves quality and increases yield. Sprayed tree at left bore four 
barrels of apples, 87 per cent marketable. Unsprayed tree at right bore one barrel, only 
13 per cent marketable. Note also the difference in leaves. (Missouri Station. ) 

the plants. Lime-sulfur is also used to control scale insects chiefly 
during the dormant season of the plants. Each of these will be 
discussed in this chapter. 

Bordeaux mixture is made of three materials: copper sulfate, 
fresh lime and water. The standard formula is 4 pounds of copper 
sulfate, 4 pounds of lime, in 40 gallons of water. This is briefly 
expressed as 4-4-40. The 3-3-40 formula is sometimes used where 
plants are tender, as on young tomato plants. 

Dissolve the copper sulfate in hot water or hang the crystals in a 



SPRAY MATERIALS TO PREVENT DISEASE 



305 



cloth in the water near the surface so that the dissolved part will 
settle to the bottom and cause other water not saturated to come in 
contact with the crystals. 

Slake the lime in cold water by pouring on a little water at a 
time until some heat is generated, then pour on enough water to 
keep it from burning, or becoming dry from the heat. Do not 
smother the lime during the slaking process. This will prevent the 
formation of lumps. As the lime becomes completely slaked more 
water may be added, and stu'ring should be vigorous and for some 




Fig. 213. — Bordeaux mixture is best made by pouring the two diluted stock solutions 
together into a third vessel, letting the streams mix in the air. (U.S.D.A.) 

time. When the whole mass has been made of a creamy consistency 
strain it through a cheese cloth to remove the grit or other particles 
which will not pass through a fine spi-ayer. 

These two stock solutions may be kept separate for any length 
of time. As they are used they should be thoroughly stirred or 
shaken before mixing. In mixing them dilute each, keeping strict 
account of the amount of water used, so as to attain the above 
formula as desired. When the two are diluted enough, pour them 
at the same time into a third vessel so that the streams will mingle. 
This causes a more perfect combination (Figs. 213 and 214). 
20 



306 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 



Ammoniacal Carbonate of Copper. — Tliis is prepared by weigh- 
ing out three ounces of copper carbonate. Make a thick paste 
witli water in a wooden vessel. Measure five pints of full streng-th 
ammonia which tests 26 degrees on the Baume scale. Dilute the 
ammonia by adding three times as much water. Then add this 
diluted ammonia to the paste mentioned. This will turn to a deep 
purple color. Then add enough water to make fifty gallons. It 

should be applied to the plants 
while it is fresh. It does not 
discolor the fiiiits and will re- 
main on until washed off by 
rains. It is used chiefly on 
fruits that are nearly mature. 
It is also used on roses and 
other ornamental plants. 

Copper Sulfate. — This mate- 
rial, when dissolved in water, 
as described in making one of 
the stock solutions for Bor- 
deaux mixture, is a splendid 
fungicide to be used when 
plants are in the dormant con- 
dition. It will destroy many 
spores, and thus prevent much 
of the growth of the disease 
when sprmg arrives. 

Dissolve one pound of the 
blue crystals of copper sulfate 
in about twenty-five gallons 
of water. This is particularly 
valuable in peach orchards to 
prevent peach leaf curl. It 
would be used in orchards which had been affected by this dis- 
ease the preceding year. Use before buds swell in spring. 

Livers cf Sulfur. — Chemical name potassium sulfide. Dissolve 
three ounces of the powder in ten gallons of water. Stir well 
before using. It is a specific against mildew on plants in 
green houses. Out of doors it is often used on roses and other 
ornamentals. 

Potassium permanganate is used experhnentally for these, one 
ounce to ten gallons of water. Rain washes both off quickly and to 
make them effective the spraying should be done on a clear day. 




Fig. 214. — An elevated platform for mixing 
Bordeaux and other spray materials. Two bar- 
rels may be used for stock solutions and others 
for the dilute mixture. The extension trough 
aids in filling the spray tank which is hauled 
near the platform. (Indiana Station.) 



SPRAY MATERIALS TO PREVENT DISEASE 



307 



Ldme-sulfur. — This preparation is used abundantly in the control 
of San Jose scale, either as a winter spray or as a summer spray. 
The spores of fungous diseases are largely killed when this spray is 
applied. If orchard trees, for example, are sprayed with lime- 
sulfur during the winter the spores with which the spray comes in 
contact are killed. This aids materially in the reduction of the 
disease during the following growing season. 

There are several fonns of lime-sulfur prepared. The home 
boiled concentrated lime-sulfur (Fig. 215), the commercial lime- 
sulfur, the self-boiled lime-sulfur and the commercial dry powder. 




FiG. 215. — Home boiled lime-sulfur may be prepared as shown or may be boiled by a steam 
pipe leading into a barrel from a boiler. (Indiana Station.) 

For spraying on a large scale the home made lime-sulfur may be 
prepared as follows: Use 38 pounds of fresh unslaked lime, 40 
pounds of clean rolled sulfur powdered, and 50 gallons of water. 
Make a paste of the sulfur, using about 10 gallons of hot water. 
Then add the lime and let it slake. Add more hot water as neces- 
sary to prevent drying or lumping. When the lime has all slaked 
add the balance of the water to make the 50 gallons and boil, 
stirring thoroughly while boiling, for one hour (Fig. 215). As the 
water boils away more should be added to maintain the quantity. 

A good method of boiling is to have the water in a barrel or tank 
and heat by means of a hose or steam pipe from a small boiler. A 



308 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 



simpler method is to put the materials in a large iron kettle over a 
fire. The red liquid may be poured into barrels and covered with 
oil to prevent evaporation while being stored. This concentrated 
solution must be diluted before using. For example, if the reading 

of the hydrometer is 35°, 1 part to 9 parts of 

water may be used for the winter spray for San 
Jose scale or as a winter fungicide. Twelve parts 
of water to one part of this same liquid will be 
right for the blister mite. One part of this 
strength of liquid to 45 parts of water would 
be strong enough for the summer spray on 
apples when the trees are in full leaf, (p. 397). 
Commercial Limc-svlfur. — This is sold in con- 
centrated form by a number of manufacturers. 
It is a clear amber or red liquid, and will test 
from 32 to 35 degrees on the Baume hydrometer 
(Fig. 216). It is ready to be mixed with water 
according to the proportions mentioned for 
the home made preparation. With this and 
powdered lime-sulfur directions come with the 
package showing the dilution for different 
purposes. (See Appendix tables). 

Self -boiled lime-sulfur is prepared by the 
heat formed in the slaking of the lime. Use 
eight pounds of good fresh, unslaked lime. Add 
water to start the slaking gradually, but use 
sufficient to keep it from burning or lumping. 
When heat has begun to generate well, slowly 
sift into this eight pounds of the fine sulfur. 
Stir the mixture constantly and thoroughly. 
Add more water as needed. As soon as the 
boiling has ceased add the remainder of the 
cold water to make a mixture of 50 gallons. 
(This formula is written 8-8-50). Agitate well. 
ter and cylinder Tor use It is uscd as a spccial spray material against 

in testing the density of , , ,, ^cji , i- • , 

lime-sulfur and other peach scao and Drowu rot oi the stone iruits. 
seafe'd Ty ''the^Bauml Poisou cau be easily mixed with it for curcuho, 
a?p°end'ix: and^i'a^na bud worms and Other chewing insects. In 
^*^*'°°-' making this preparation the amount of boiling 

is variable. If hot water is used, the solution boils more. 
The stronger, liquid may injure peach leaves. This may 



Fig. 21(i. — Hydrome- 



PRINCIPLES IN USING FUNGICIDES 



309 



also be varied by using a little more or a little less of the liine and 
sulfur in the 50 gallons of water. As a winter spray one or two 
pounds of copper sulfate is sometimes added to the 50 gallons of 
lime-sulfur. This is of special value against apple rust. 

The use of poisons with a winter or summer spray of lime-sulfur 
is effective against chewing insects. 

Principles in Using Fungicides. — It is important to remember 
that all fungicides should be used before the disease breaks out. 
After a serious outbreak little effect can be seen from spraying 
(Fig. 217). Plants that have not yet been affected may usually 
be protected b}^ spraying after neighboring plants are diseased. 
Use as strong a spray material as possible without injury to the 





Fig. 217. — Apple scab is prevented by use of lime-sulfur as a winter spray, by the sum- 
mer strength of lime-sulfur when the petals fall, and the same two weeks later. 

plants. Remember that young, succulent plants are more tender, 
and weaker solutions are necessar3^ A little trial will help to 
determine this point without depending absolutely upon formulas 
given in books or bulletins. 

The principle involved in the use of fungicides is to use a mate- 
rial which is as permanent as possible without destroying the plant 
or any of its product, or to make it unfit for human use. 

The spray must be strong enough and frequent enough to kill 
the spores of the disease before they enter the tissues of the plants. 
After thej' obtain a good foothold it is difficult to control their 
growth. 

Special directions for fighting the different diseases are men- 
tioned in the discussion of the different fruits and vegetable crops. 



310 PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

To Fight Biting Insects. — Many insects live on the surface of 
plants, eating twigs, leaves, fruit, etc. They bite their food and 
also obtain some of the poison material which, if strong enough, 
will kill them. 

Poison Sprays. — Arsenic is the chief ingredient of most of the 
poison sprays. It is used in many different forms. The chief forms 
are white arsenic, Paris green, London purple, arsenate of lead, and 
arsenite of zinc. Hellebore is a native poison made from the pJant 
by that name. 

White arsenic is probably the cheapest form in which arsenic is 
sold. It is a white powder readily soluble in water, but is very 
injurious to the foliage, and can seldom be used successfully on 
plants when they arc in leaf. It is used as one ingredient of spray- 
ing when combined with Bordeaux mixture. Prepare it by using 
two pounds of sal-soda in one gallon of water. Add one pound of 
white arsenic. When it is mixed into the form of a paste boil until 
dissolved. Add enough water to replace that boiled away and 
make the gallon of stock solution for use with Bordeaux mixture. 
Use one quart of it with each 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture for 
orchard trees. If there is enough lime in the Bordeaux mixture it 
will prevent the burning of foliage by the arsenic. 

A similar stock solution may be made with half as much sal-soda. 
Then add to this mixture two pounds of fresh, unslaked lime. Add 
enough water to make two gallons of stock solution including the 
lime after slaking. Use two quarts of this Stock solution to every 
50 gallons of water. If the lime is good it should prevent most of 
the injury to leaves, as the Imie takes up the free arsenic. 

Paris Green. — This is a compound which is not uniform in com- 
position. The national law requires at least 50 per cent of arsenious 
oxid. There must be three and one-half per cent of water-soluble 
arsenious oxid. 

Paris green is abundantly used in spraying orchards by mixing 
one-half pound to 100 gallons of Bordeaux mixture, or one-half 
pound to 100 gallons of water, to which about one pound of fresh 
lime is added. The lime in either case is enough to take up the 
free arsenic and prevent burning of foliage. Paris green is also 
used as a mixture with lime-sulfur as a summer spray. It may 
be combined with the lime-sulfur for the winter spray, but is 
seldom used at that time as it is not needed. The use of Paris 
green as an arsenical poison is rapidly being replaced by arsen- 
ate of lead. 



POISON SPRAYS 311 

London Purple. — This was once a popular form of poison for 
use in gardens and orhards. It is now seldom used, as its compo- 
sition is quite variable, the arsenic content running from 30 to 50 
per cent. Use it, if at all, a little stronger than you would Paris 
green. 

Arsenate of Lead. — This form of arsenic is used abundantly on 
potatoes, orchard trees and for almost all purposes in fighting biting 
insects. It is not so easily washed off the leaves by rains as are 
other forms of poison. Its composition is more uniform, and there 
is a less proportion of free arsenic present to injure the leaves. It is 
easily combined with the dilute forms of sulfur for summer 
sprays. It is sold in two forms, either as a thick paste or as 
a powder. If desired for spraying purposes the paste is to be 
preferred, as it dissolves more readily. The dust is sometimes 
used to niLX with land plaster or air-slaked lime for dusting such 
plants as potatoes or low-growing vegetables. This is done in 
the morning when dew is on the plants. The land plaster helps 
dilute the arsenate of lead and causes it to cover more plants. It 
also helps to hold the poison on the plants, as it will harden when 
wet with the dew and clmg, as whitewash does on a board 
fence. The use of molasses with such poisons causes insects to eat 
the poisons more readily. 

There are several strengths in which the arsenate of lead may be 
used, depending upon the insects to be killed, and also depending 
upon! the danger of plants to injury; two pounds paste, or one 
pound powder in 50 gallons of water or lime-sulfur can be used on 
the peach against curculio and brown rot. It may be a little stronger 
for apples. On grapes for grape beetles or root worms and for 
fighting the rose chafer, fom* or five pounds may be used to each 
50 gallons of the liquid. 

Arsenate of lime of good quality is much cheaper than the above 
and is used in about the same amounts. If used with lime or sprays 
containing lime, Bordeaux or lime-sulfur, there is little danger of 
burning leaves. If used alone it may injure leaves somewhat. The 
powdered form is used for dusting on potatoes, cabbage, cotton, 
corU; etc., when plants are moist with dew. For the home made 
paste form see directions under white arsenic, or use two pounds 
white arsenic and one or two pounds of pure fresh lime (CaO). 
Boil 40 minutes in a gallon of water. 

Arsenite of Zinc — This was first used in the Pacific states and in 
the trucking regions of the Atlantic slope. It is a good substitute 
for arsenate of lead. If used with lime-water or with Bordeaux 



312 PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

mixture it is less injurious to the foliage. One pound of zinc 
arsenite is equivalent to about three pounds of arsenate of 
lead. 

Hellebore, — The roots of white hellebore plants are ground into 
a powder which may be applied either dry or in a water solution. 
After being ground it loses its strength rapidly, and should be 
kept in a closed vessel to prevent loss of strength. It may be 
dusted on plants in its full strength without injury. For the liquid 
spray use four ounces of powdered hellebore mixed with two to 
four gallons of water. An ounce of liquid glue added to this 
mixture will aid in keeping it on the plants. 

Hellebore tea is sometimes made by boiling the roots in water. 
While fresh this may be sprayed on plants. Hellebore has its chief 
advantage m being much less poisonous than the arsenical prepa- 
rations. It does not injure the leaves of plants and is less dangerous 
to crops that are to be used directly as human food. 

Principles of Fighting Biting Insects. — There are a number of 
important principles to be borne in mind in fightmg biting insects. 
First, make sure that the insects are of the bitmg kind. By 
observing their work, see what damage is being done. If the surface 
of the leaves is being taken by them, or if the leaves are being eaten 
in any way, or if the fruit is bitten, then you know that the insects 
are of this type. Poison sprays should be applied as soon as the 
work of the biting insects begins. Success depends upon getting 
them before they do much damage (Fig. 218). 

The spraying material must be strong enough to poison the 
insects, and should be made attractive enough so that they will 
eat it. Usually the leaves will be attraction enough, but some 
sweetening is sometimes used. 

Danger to foliage must be avoided. In nearly all cases this is 
possible by the use of lime added to the water sprays, or by using 
Bordeaux mixture containing plenty of lime. 

Insects which are soon to become imbedded in fruits must be 
poisoned at the verj^ moment they are entering the fruits; for 
example, with apple worms and plum curculio insects this princi- 
ple applies. It is necessary that the poison be on the surface ready 
for the insect to get his first mouthful, otherwise spraying would 
be too late. 

To Fight Sucking Insects. — By sucking insects we mean those 
which take their food in the form of juices through sucking tubes 
which they insert below the surface of the leaves, fruit or stems. 



CONTACT INSECTICIDES 



313 



Plant lice are sucking insects which attack many plants (Fig. 219). 
It is evident that insects obtaining their food from the inside of 
the plants can not be poisoned in the same way that we would 
poison those eating the sui'face. An entirely different plan of com- 
bating such insects must be used. Contact sprays are applied. 
This means that the spray material must come directly in contact 
with the bodies of the insects in ortler to kill them. 

Contact Insecticides. — Among the contact insecticides are the 
soluble or miscible oils, lime-sulfur compounds, soap mixtures, 




Fig. 21S. 



-Canker worms feed on apple blossoms and on the leaves, 
arsenate of lead. (Ohio Station.) 



Spray promptly with 



resinous emulsions, kerosene emulsion and crude oil emulsion. 
Sulfur and nicotine sulfate may also be used as contact insecticides. 
Pyrethrum, tobacco dust, road dust and other materials are some- 
times used. 

Kerosene emulsion is one of the oldest and one of the most 
effective home-made remedies for sucking insects. It is used com- 
monly in fighting plant lice and all sucking insects with soft bodies. 

Prepare a soap solution of kerosene emulsion by using laundry 
soap, one-half pound, two gallons kerosene and one gallon of water. 



314 PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

Shave up the soap in the water while boihng hot. As soon as the 
soap is all dissolved remove from the fire and mix it with the two 
gallons of kerosene. Shake this mixture thoroughly for fifteen 
minutes. If you have a bucket pump use that in mixing, by spray- 
ing back into the same vessel. This soap solution may be kept in 
large bottles for use at any time. It should be shaken again each 
time before using. 




Fig. 219. — A melon leaf badly infested with plant lice. Spray with nicotine sulfate one part 
to 300 parts or 600 parts of water, (Illinois Station.) 

On dormant trees and shrubs use one part of the soap solution to 
about seven parts of water. On plants in full leaf for plant lice, 
dilute it, using one part to about fifteen ]3arts of water. Always 
make a trial to see if the plants are being injured, and also to see if 
the insects are being killed. 

Crude Oil Emulsions. — The directions for making crude oil 
emulsions are practically the same as for making kerosene emulsion. 
The danger to plants is less than with the kerosene emulsion, 



CONTACT INSECTICIDES 315 

but a large amount of water may be used for either the dormant 
spray or the summer spray. Its effect in killing insects is greater 
because of the greater amount of grease in the crude oil. 

The strength of the emulsion is often indicated by the per cent of 
oil or kerosene present in the diluted material; for example a ten 
per cent emulsion would be indicated when the stock solution 
above described is mixed with twenty gallons of water. 

Miscible Oils. — Soluble oils, or miscible oils are prepared and 
are on the market for ready use in making spray materials. A 
number of companies prepare such oils from crude oils or distillates. 

The chief use of the miscible oils is in fighting the San Jose scale 
which is the worst of all sucking insects. For winter spraying 
against this insect about one part of miscible oil is used with fifteen 
parts of water. Usually directions come with each lot for making 
up the spray for different purposes and at different seasons. It is 
important to have the spraying done in dry weather and when 
there is little danger of freezing too soon after spraying. 

Soaps. — Fish oil soaps have a disagreeable odor and are good repel- 
lants. They are often sold under the name of whale oil soap, but 
there is probably little on the market made from whale oil. Strong 
soap of any kind when dissolved in water is good to use on tender 
plants for destroying plant lice and other soft bodied sucking 
insects. Very strong soap suds should be used. Cottonseed oil and 
other cheap oils are used for making soaps to be used in spraying. 
A good fonnula for the home preparation of such soap is caustic 
soda, six pounds; fish oil or other oil, twenty- two pounds; water, 
one-half gallon. First dissolve the caustic soda m the water then 
add the oil gradually while stirring vigorously. If this work is 
done in a warm place boiling will not be necessary. The longer 
the stirring is kept up the better the soap will remain in suspension. 

Nicotine Sulfate. — This is an extract of tobacco containing about 
forty per cent of pure nicotine sulfate. It can be combined with 
other sprays as lime-sulfur, arsenate of lead and soap solutions. It 
is well to always add some soap to the whole solution to help make 
it spread better over the plants. 

A commercial form of this preparation is known as "black leaf 
40." This and the commercial nicotine sulfate are used in strengths 
varying from one part in 800 parts of water to twice that dilution. 

Nicojume is a preparation of paper saturated with nicotine 
sulfate. It is used chiefly for fumigating green houses. The satu- 
rated paper is burned when dry. 



316 PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

Tobacco dust is used both as an insecticide and as a repellant. 
Dusting this on plants to repel insects may drive them away 
(Fig. 229), or the nicotine extracted by the moisture of the dew or 
rain may kill some of the msects. Plant lice on the roots of apple 
trees or other plants are often destroyed by the use of tobacco dust. 
This is applied in the soil after digging away the earth from about 
the roots. Extract of tobacco stems is used in much the same way. 

Lime-sulfur solution is one of the best insecticides for use against 
San Jose scale and other forms of scale insects. The coating formed 
over the surface of the bark seems to smother the scale insects and 
they are killed whenever the spraying is done thoroughly. 

Directions for making lime-sulfur solutions have already been 
given in this chapter. This may be applied in either the winter or 
the summer form according to the requirements; the strength is 
varied to suit the season. 

Pyrethrum. — Persian insect powder is made from the heads of a 
plant belonging to the genus P\Tethrum, which we frequently find 
growing in gardens. It is a light brown i^owder which is somewhat 
dangerous to use in houses. It can be used if care is exercised to 
not breathe it. The powder loses its strength rapidly and nmst be 
kept in a closed vessel, or used when freshly made. It is commonly 
used in the powder form, but may also be dissolved in water at the 
rate of one ounce to three gallons. In the dry form it may be mixed 
with other powders such as Ume dust, borax or flour. It may be 
used for fumigation by putting the powder on a shovel of hot coals. 

Pyrethrum is sometimes dissolved in alcohol, one part to four 
parts of alcohol by weight. Shake this in a bottle and allow to 
stand for a week. This may be filtered through a cloth and used in 
an atomizer for house plants. Some water may be added if too 
strong for the plants. An extract of pyrethrum may be made 
somewhat in the manner of tea by pouring boiling water over the 
flower heads and allowing to stand for a few minutes. 

Principles of Fighting Sucking Insects. — Remember that the 
spray materials must be strong enough to kill the insect by contact 
and must be applied when the insects are present. Oils and dust 
are both fairly good insecticides if they come in contact with the 
insects. Do not expect the insects to be killed unless the insecticide 
does the work when the insects are present. 

Future attacks of the insects are not affected by spraying or 
dusting done in advance of an attack. Soft bodied insects are 
much easier to kill by contact than are those of the scale group. 



FARM AND GARDEN PRACTICES AGAINST INSECTS 317 

Many of the so-called eating insects would be killed by contact 
insecticides if their bodies were soft enough to be affected. 

It is well understood by students that all insects breathe through 
special breathing pores located on the body, and not through the 
mouth. Smothering is believed to be at least a part of the cause of 
the death of insects when killed by such insecticides. 

Spraying or dusting against sucking insects can not be carried 
on in advance, but the work must be done at the proper time. This 
should be early in the attack of any kind of insect. Do not wait 
until the plants are seriously mjured before fighting begins. 

Special Ways of Fighting Insects. — Cut worms and other similar 
insects that eat plants are sometimes destroyed by poison bait. 
Bran mixed with Paris green or clover leaves dipped m some arsen- 
ical poison may be left where the insects may eat and be killed. 

Grasshoppers are sometimes poisoned by the so-called "Criddle 
mixture." Mix one pound of Paris green with one barrel of horse 
droppings; add one pound of salt and some water so it will mix and 
spread nicely. Spread this well where the grasshoppers are abun- 
dant and where the poison will not do harm to birds or other 
creatures. 

Kerosene torches are sometimes used for burning webs out of 
trees. 

Lanterns burning at night over pans of water covered with kero- 
sene form good traps for many insects. On warm summer nights 
the light attracts flying insects that fall into the kerosene, where 
they are killed. 

INIan}^ insects are destroyed by hand picking and by pruning off 
parts on which they are feeding. 

Banding of trees is sometimes used to trap the females of canker 
worm. This moth has no wings and must crawl up the tree to lay 
her eggs, where the larvae are to find their food. A band of sticky 
fly ijaper will catch many of them. 

Other trap bands such as brown paper or burlap are tied around 
the trunks of trees to trap codling moths a"nd others that will 
form their cocoons under them. The bands maj^ be removed and 
run through a wringer or burned to destroy the larvae. 

Farm and Garden Practices against Insects.- — Among the best 
methods for combating insects and plant diseases are rotation of 
crops, fall plowing, using trap crops, thorough cultivation, burning 
and clearing the hiding places, the use of poultry and protection of 
birds. 



318 PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

A spray calendar is a convenient reminder and guide in fight- 
ing insects and preventing diseases. The accompanying table 
was prepared by the Muinesota Station, (Bulletm 153). In ahnost 
every case an insecticide should be combined with a fungicide to 
save labor and accomplish two purposes at once. The calendar 
suits all parts of the country, but will always need to be varied in 
some particulars to suit the season or conditions. 

SPRAYING EQUIPMENT 

One of the simplest garden sprayers is the hand sprayer which 
holds from one pint to one quart of liquid, shown in figure 220. 
The liquid is forced out and upon the plants by the force of air 
blown by the pump. It is really an atomizer. This is perhaps the 
simplest and cheapest sprayer in use in small gardens. 

Knapsack Pump. — A flattened oval vessel holding from three to 
five gallons may be easily strapped upon the back of the operator. 




Fig. 220. — A small hand sprayer will be of much help in a small garden. 



A pump in the center is operated by a lever extending in front to 
either the left or the right side. In the other hand the operator 
holds the hose or short extension rod in spraying. The movement 
of the body will keep the liquid fairly well agitated. The operation 
of this sprayer is not tiresome, but unless care is exercised the 
slopping of the liquid may be disagreeable upon one's back. 

Compressed air sprayers of the three gallon or five gallon size 
may be carried as shown in figure 221. The pressure pump in 
the top is operated before spraying begins. Agitation of the 
liquid is easy while carrying the vessel. This sprayer is well suited 
to work in small gardens. 

A bucket pump is a very simple sprayer. Some forms are made to 
clamp on the side of a deep bucket holding 3 or 4 gallons. The 
pumping is done with a lever by one operator who may hold the 
extension rod in the other hand and spray any plants either high 
or low. 

Barrel sprayers are of several kinds (Figs. 222 and 223). Those 
using a barrel without a head are most easily cleaned, and usually to 



GAS SPRAYERS 



319 



be preferred. Some form of agitator is usually connected with the 
lever so that the liquid is kept stirred constantly. These may be 
provided with either one or two Imes of hose and connection rods. 
If barrel sprayers are used on wagons or sleds drawn by a horse 
the man operating the pump may also do the driving. An assistant 
is required for handling each line of hose and rod. 

Tank Sprayers of many sizes are used in large orchards (Fig. 
224). The pumping may be either by hand or by engines of 




Fig. 221. — Compressed air sprayer, handy for garden use. (U.S.D.A.) 

various kinds (Fig. 225) . A suction hose leads from the tank to the 
pump and special agitators are usually required. 

Gas sprayers are frequently used by orchardists. Gas tanks 
containing either condensed air, carbon dioxide or liquid air are 
used in connection with spray tanks which may be made air tight 
by screwing on tight covers after the spray material is placed in the 
tank. The gas tank is connected with the spray tank by a tight, 
metal-covered tube. The liquid is then forced out from the bottom 
of the spray tank through a pipe connected with the hose and 
extension rod. 



320 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 



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1 
1 


Spraying just after the petals fall, 
getting as much of the liquid into 
the calyx cups as possible, is most 
effectual for codling moth. 

Make a fourth application, about 
30 or 40 days after petals fall, if 
black rot or bitter rot is present. 

Destroy fallen leaves and all rotted 
fruit; prune out and burn all 
cankers; disinfect wounds. 

Trees should be thoroughly covered. 


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The poison will stick better to the 
leaf if used in soapy water. 

With cauliflower, great care must 
be taken if the plant is heading. 


Destroy diseased parts. If severe, 
dip plants in Bordeaux or am- 
moniacal copper carbonate mix- 
ture before storing. 


The adult insects do not seriously 
injure cucumbers in cold frames, 
nor do larvae under field condi- 
tions. 


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SPRAY CALENDAR 



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Destroy all mummies (shriveled 

fruit). 
Repeat spray with poison for second 

brood curculio in South 

Prune and burn affected branches in 

the fall. 
Destroy affected plums. 


Vines should be well covered with 
Bordeaux mixture throughout the 
season. This usually involves 
spraying every ten days or two 
weeks. 


Cut out and burn diseased canes; 
keep old canes cut out. Protect 
with Bordeaux mixture until canes 
are at least two-thirds grown. 


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Vines should be well covered with 
Bordeaux mixture throughout the 
season. 

Provide good ventilation. 


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Every ten days 
to two weeks 

When petals falls, 
and when fruits 
are size of small 
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Bordeaux mixture 
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li m e-s ul fur 
(1-40) as soon 
as blossom buds 
swell. Again 
when fruit be- 
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Again 10 days 

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Before blossoms come 

out 
.\8 soon as possible 

after they appear 


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Just before flower 
buds break 

Copper sulfate before 
any growth starts 
in spring 


When plants are eight 

inches high 
As soon as beetle eggs 

hatch 


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When worms appear 
Just after the fruit sets 


As soon as first seen 

Whenever mildew ap- 
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Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) 

Some miscible oil or kero- 
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Arsenate of lead powder 
(1-50) plus self -boiled 
lime-sulfur (8-8-50). 

Copper sulfate 
Self-boiled hme-sulfur 
Same as for apple 


Bordeaux mixture (5-5-50) 

Paris green (1-50) or ar- 
senate of lead (3-50) 


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0) 

-3 
k. 
o 

_a 

5) 

a 


o 

lO 

1 

-t< 
1 

0) 
3 

S 
X 

3 

01 

"P 
O 

CQ 


Arsenate of lead (3-50) 
Bordeaux mixture (5-5-50 


Water or some tobacco 

decoction 
Potassium sulfide (Livers of 

sulfur) 


0) 

3 
3 



s S 
g 1 
% s 

"" 3 S 

GC 03 


Black rot, downy 

mildew 
Leaf hopper 


01 

3g 


Brown rot 
Curculio 

Plum pocket 
Shot hole 
Scales 


-a 
a 

03 
>. 

1 
1 

M OS'S 

;3 01 
Oa PQ 


Anthracnose 
Gray bark dis- 
ease 
(Spur blight) 


J3 

3 

(0 


Tomato worms 
Leaf mold 
Leaf spot 
Black rot 


01 

2 

s 1 

to .Q 

T3 ^ 

01 o 


0) 

^ a) 

« 2 
03 ."3 


o 

a 

u 


a 
_o 
"3 
S 

3 


CO a jH 
='g =^ .a 

fcfL, o 


3 

o 




01 

& 

03 

02 


o 

S 
O 

H 


OI 

3 


c3 
ft 



21 



322 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

Fig. 222. Fig. 223. 




Fir,. 222. — Using a barrel sprayer in a farm wagon. (Missouri Station.) 
Fig. 223. — A common form of barrel pump with two leads of hose and two disli nozzles 
on each extension rod. The pump is bolted to the barrel head. This makes the barrel hard 
to clean out after using. (New Jersey Station.) 




Fig. 224. — A double-acting hand pump and tank arranged to spray through two leads of 
hose from a farm wagon. From the tower platform the tops of orchard trees may be sprayed. 
(Indiana Station.) 



HOSE AND EXTENSION RODS 



323 



Elevated Towers. — Frequently trees are so high that the man 
usmg the spray rod needs to stand at a high elevation above the 
tank. Towers are then built on wagons holding the spray outfit. 
This plan makes it possible to reach the upper parts of the trees 
which might otherwise be missed. 




Fig. 225. — With a gasoline or oil engine a high pressure may be easily maintained, 
makes a fine mist. (Michigan Station.) 



This 



Hose and Extension Rods. — The hose used in spraying should be 
strong and durable. On the other hand it should be easily handled 
and not too heavy. 

Extension rods should be of lengths to suit the kind of spraying. 
For large trees, rods eight to twelve feet in length are sometimes 
used. At the base of the rod is a shut-off cock so that the operator 
in moving the rod from tree to tree, will not lose much material. 
The nozzle is attached to the end of the rod. Extension rods are 
usually made of thin brass surrounded by a bamboo tube. Some- 



324 



PRINCIPLES OP SPRAYING 



times they are merely sections of gas pipe made of galvanized or 

black iron. The inside diameter may be about one-fourth inch. 

Nozzles. — Spray nozzles are of 

^ many types. They can be used in 

connection with any of the spray 
machines except the atomizer. Most 

• • sprays require that the liquid be 

made as fine as possible. Heavy 
streams of liquid are not usually de- 
sired. The best forms of nozzles now 
in use are those with large discs, sold 
as "disc nozzles" (Figs. 226 and 227). 
The nozzle should be connected 
with the spray rod by means of a 
45 degree elbow, so that by merely 
turning the rod the operator can 
easily give a different direction to 
the spray. He can thus more easily 
strike all sides of the leaves and 
stems of plants. 




Fig. 226. — The large disk nozzle 
gives a finer mist than the older types. 
The angle connection, shown at the 
base, makes the spraying easier and 
more thorough. (Indiana Station.) 



Dusting instead of spraying is frequently practiced. It saves 
handling so much liquid and makes the work more rapid. Hand 




Fig. 227. — Several types of spray nozzles. All modern nozzles have a large disk in which 
the liquid is given a rotary motion before exit from the orifice. (New Jersey Station.) 

dusters made of loose burlap are often used in potato fields and 
gardens. A machme blower for dustmg several rows at once is 
shown in figure 229. 



SPRAY MATERIAli 



325 



j^Kt 


^ 




'^^^^^^^^^^^tt/B^ 




' 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^BHrT 






i,^M|MHPt 


i.- 


"'*"''^' 





Fig. 228. — Upper figure shows an even coatins; of spray material with fine nozzle 
and high pressure. Lower figure shows the poor work of a coarse nozzle or low pressure. 
(Kansas Station.) 



326 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 



Principles of Spraying. — Liquid sprays should usually be applied 
on a bright day to give the liquid time to dry before rain. 




Fig. 229. — Three-row duster operated by gas engine; used on strawberries to combat 
weevils. (New Jersey Station.) 





Fig. 230. — A Maryland orchard thoroughly sprayed with lime-sulfur. Every spot is 
coated with the spray material to smother the scale insects and to destroy spores of all 
diseases. (U.S.D.A.) 

The finer the mist formed in spraying, the more even will be the 
spray on the surface of the plants. Damage to the plant is less 
likely to result (Fig. 228). 



EXERCISES, PROJECTS, AND SURVEYS 327 

Always make the spraying very thorough. Do not allow any 
part of the plant to be missed (Fig. 230). Insects feeding upon 
the parts not sprayed may afterward spread to other parts of the 
orchard or garden. 

Never spray unless you know for what you are spraying. Use 
the material required for the purpose in hand. 

Never drench the plants unduly. Damage is likely to result 
and material is wasted. 

The cost of spraying is largely governed by the labor involved. 
If the spraying apparatus is handy, and the work is begun 
promptly, the benefits will usually far repay the cost of labor and 
material (Fig. 231) 



Vi',. L':;i. — Sprucing the apple orcnard pays. Upper lot from tree sprayed three times; 
fruit mostly No. 1, at left, few culls at right. Lower lot from tree not sprayed, fruit mostly 
culls at right. (Illinois Station.) 

Avoid making the spraying irksome. Protect your hands and 
face with suitable materials to avoid injury to the skin. By 
rubbing a little vaseline on the hands and face before spraying 
with Bordeaux mixture the material is easily washed off. 

Poison sprays should be handled cautiously and not be left 
where children or dumb animals will be injured. 

EXERCISES, PROJECTS, AND SURVEYS 

1 . Making Fungicides. — Prepare the stock solutions for Bordeaux mix- 
ture in quantities to suit your vessels. Make up some of the mixture and use 
it in the garden or orchard. 

2. Make concentrated lime-sulfur solution. Then dilute it and use it in 
the orchard. 

3. Make a solution of ammoniacal carbonate of copper, and livers of sul- 
fur. Use each in suitable places. 

4. Poisons. — -Make up spray mixtures of arsenate of lead, of Paris green, 
of white arsenic, of London purple, of arsenite of zinc. Practice using each of 
these against chewing insects. 



328 PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

5. Powders. — Make use of hellebore, pyrethrum, and tobacco dust in 
suitable ways. 

6. Emulsions. — Make up a stock solution of kerosene emulsion. Dilute 
and use some of this. 

7. Make a similar emulsion using crude oil instead of kerosene. 

8. Secure some prepared miscible oil, as "scalecide." Dilute this prop- 
erly and use it as a spray. 

9. Soap of several kinds should be made up into spray materials and each 
used on plant lice to test the effects. 

10. Nicotine sulfate in the liquid form should be made up into a dilute 
spray and used on sucking insects, as plant hce, leaf hoppers, and others. 

11. Cut worms should be fought in ways suggested. 

12. Use banding methods to trap the larvae of codhng moths. 

13. Use bands of sticky fly paper against canker worms, and against 
larvae traveUing up the trunks of trees. 

14. Try hand picking of tomato worms, potato beetles, or other large insects. 

15. Use of spray apparatus of several forms should enter into the preced- 
ing exercises. Use several forms of pumps, nozzles, and rods of different lengths. 

16. Spraying campaigns against both potato beetles and bhght may be a 
home project. 

17. Similar projects may be planned in connection with the growth of 
any garden or orchard crops where the enemies are bad. 

18. Commimity studies and siu??eys should be made to determine the 
most serious enemies in gardens and orchards and the most successful methods 
of fighting them. Discover if possible, those that are spraying improperly as 
well as the successful ones. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the three chief purposes in conducting spraying campaigns. 

2. Mention several materials to use in preventing disease. Discuss each. 

3. Tell how to make Bordeaux mixture. 

4. Describe the making of concentrated lime-sulfur and tell how to dilute it 

5. Give directions for making self -boiled lime-sulfur. 

6. What principles are involved in the use of fungicides? 

7. Mention several spray materials to use in fighting the chewing insects. 

8. What are the merits of arsenate of lead as compared with the others? 

9. Mention several contact insecticides for use against sucking insects? 

10. Describe the making of kerosene emulsion? 

11. What are miscible oils? Discuss their use. 

12. Discuss the use of nicotine sulfate; of tobacco dust; of pyrethrum. 

13. What principles are involved in fighting sucking insects? 

14. Give several special ways of fighting insects without spraying. 

15. Describe a knapsack pump and suggest its best uses. 

16. Same for the bucket pump; and the barrel pump. 

17. Discuss the hose, extension rods, and nozzles. Give principles of spraying. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 440, Spraying Peaches; 595, 
Arsenate of Lead as an Insecticide; 648, Control of Root Knot; 650, San Jos6 
Scale and its Control; 662, Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar; 721, Rose Chafer; 
722, Leaf Blister Mite; 723, Oyster-shell Scale and Scurfy Scale ; 731, True 
Army Worm and Its Control; 737, Clover Leaf Hopper; 739, Cutworms and 
their Control; 763, Orchard Barkbeetles and Pinhole Borers; 799, Carbon 
Bisulfid as an Insecticide ; 804, 914, Aphids; 1120, Apple Powdery Mildew; 
1169, Shade-tree Insects; 1220, Enemies of Grape; 1225, Potato Leaf Hopper; 
1262, 1098, Dusting with Arsenate of Lime. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

WORK BY SEASONS IN THE ORCHARD, FRUIT GARDEN 
AND THE HOME GROUNDS 

The beginner in orcharding may be helped materially by out- 
lines showing the work to be done each season in the orchard. 

Outline of the Year's Work in the Apple Orchard. — There are 
four main Imes of work in the orchard which demand attention. 
In the winter the first task is to give the annual pruning which 
the orchard must have to be successful. Following this at any 
suitable time when the weather is favorable, the spraying campaign 
must begin. This will continue through the spring and early 




Fig. 232. — In co-operativu I'nul shipping a 
done on an extensive scale at a central station. 



t?()Ciatii)ns tlie sorting and packing is often 
tPhoto by T. Gagnon.) 



summer. Thinning is often necessary when the fruit is small. 
Probably before spraying is ended the annual cultivation must 
begin. This will be accompanied by fertilizing or feeding the soil to 
supply plant food to the trees and growing fruit. After the culti- 
vation, pickuig will soon begin, and the fruit will have to be 
sorted and marketed or stored and later sold (Fig. 232) . 

There are special problems coming up from time to time during 
the year, such as the examination of trees for borers, and perhaps 
the fighting of codluig moth by the banding methods. Protect 
the trees from sun scald, from attacks of rabbits, etc. 

The Annual Campaign for the Stone Fruits. — The operations in 
the peach orchard are about the same as for the apple orchard. 

329 



330 



WORK BY SEASONS 



1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 



Prune the trees in their winter condition. 

Spray for scale and winter forms of fungous diseases. 

Continue the spring sprajdng. 

Cultivate during spring and early summer. 

Thin fruits when they are small. 

Fertilize during the cultivation period. 

Harvest the crop. 

Sort, pack and market (Fig. 233). 

Dig out borers each spring and fall. 




Fig. 233. — Picking baskets of this type help to protect the fruit from injury. Peaches 
are here being packed at an orchard station to start to market promptly. (New Jersey 
Station.) 

The Year's Cultivation of Orchardsr— Plow the ground by turning 
the soil with a turning plow in early spring. Let this approach as close 
to the trees as possible. If the slope of soil will allow it, tillage im- 
plements may be run both ways. The small square near each tree 
can be worked up with hand tools such as grubbmg hoes or mat- 
tocks. After plowing, the disk harrow or cutaway harrow (Figs. 234 
and 235) should be used to crumble the soil and prevent loss of 
moisture. Some such implement should be used several times. It 
will prevent the baking of soil and will keep down the growth of 



THE IRAK'S CULTIVATION OF ORCHARDS 



331 



weeds. Other tillage implements, such as the acme spike-tooth 
and spring tooth harrows may be used at short intervals after the 

first plowing and disking (Figs. . 

236 and 237). ^ 

By midsummer it is usually best 
to stop tillage. This will allow the 
trees to stop growing and ripen 
their wood and form the bud 
scales for winter protection. They 
are then less likely to be injured 
b}" winter freezing. 

A part of the annual tillage 
should include the sowing of the 
winter c'over crop at the time 
when the cultivation ceases. The 
seed may be sown just before or 
just after the last cultivation. A good cover crop mixture is one 
bushel of rye, one peck of winter vetch, and one-half peck of 




Fig. 234. — A common disk harrow may 
be attached to the ends of an extension 
bar to cultivate under orchard trees. 
(New Jersey Station.) 




Fia. 2.35. — The cutaway disk harrow is well adapted to pulverizing the surface soil and 
preparing a seed bed for gardens. Smooth edged disks give similar results. They may 
be used together as here shown with truck or forecarriage or they may be arranged for 
use separately. In clean-culture orchard work the disk harrow may be used for most of 
the summer tillage after the spring plowing. Soil may also be disked for the BOwing of a 
over crop in late summer or early fall. (Weir's Productive Soils.) 



332 



WORK BY SEASONS 



crimson clover per acre. These can be sown in a hand machine 
or merely by hand. It is usually best to cover the seed with a 




Fig. 236. — Acme pulverizing harrow used as a general purpose harrow. It is used for 
smoothing newly plowed ground or for the final preparation of a garden seed bed. It is a 
good orchard harrow. 




Fig. 237. — The spike tooth harrow with lever adjustments by which the slant of the teeth 

is controlled. 

harrow. In northern latitudes the crimson clover may be omitted 
from this mixture and the quantity of the other seeds slightly 
increased. 



THE SPRAYING CAMPAIGN 333 

The spring plowing nuiy be delayed until the winter cover crop 
has made a slight spring growth. The plowing will then turn under 
a good growth of green manure. This should supply an abundance 
of nitrogen, so that no other nitrate fertilizer need be used. 

The only commercial fertilizer in that case which needs to be 
added would contain phosphoric acid and potash. If the trees are 
making a good growth and are not bearing much both of these 
plant foods are needed. On medium soils use about 150 or 200 
pounds per acre of a mixture contaming six to eight per cent of 
each of these plant foods. 

Pruning Work of the Year. — The chief pruning of either the 
apple or peach orchard should come in the whiter season. Special 
directions for this have been given in Chapters XVI and XVIII. 
The chief points to be borne in mind are that trees will need to 
have the branches thinned to let in more light, dead branches must 
be cut away, all injured parts must be removed and long branches 
should be cut back somewhat. The trees should be kept well bal- 
anced and somewhat symmetrical. At any time during the year 
when injury occurs by the wind or any accident, prunmg should be 
resorted to immediately. Cover the wounded place or marks 
where large branches have been removed by painting them (Figs. 
238, 239 and 240). 

The spring thinning of the fruit may, in a sense, be considered 
pruning work, as it will aid materially in controlling the formation 
of fruit the next season. 

It is well to practice some pruning in the summer season. Pinch 
off the little shoots that are out of place, particularly on the large 
branches and on the trunlv of the tree. These can be removed with 
the fingers at that time without injury, and the growth during the 
remainder of the summer will be directed to better channels. 

Another important part of summer pruning is to cut away dis- 
eased branches, particularly those affected with blight or, in the 
case of stone fruits, that are affected with brown rot . 

The Sprajring Campaign in the Apple Orchard. — The campaign 
here described applies not only to apples, but to all core fruits, 
including apples, pears and quinces. 

In orchards affected with San Jose scale two winter sprayings 
are sometimes necessary. The first is with miscible oil applied in 
early winter. This loosens the scales and penetrates well into the 
rough bark. 

Late in winter, after the winter pruning is over a strong spray 



334 



WORK BY SEASONS 



of lime-sulfur solution is made to thoroughly clean up the trees of 
San Jose scale and spores of scab, rot and rust. 

If the trees are not affected with San Jose scale the winter spray- 
ing with lime-sulfur for the three classes of diseases mentioned is 
advisable. In its place, however, copper sulfate could be used. 
It is not common, however, to find orchards not somewhat affected 
with the scale. The lime-sulfur spray is a very good fungicide. 




Fig. 238. — Four types of pruning saws. C, d, swivel bladed saws for use in clcse places; 
h, 5-point solid blade was for very large limbs; a, double edge saw often sold, but it may ao 
much damage. (Nebraska Station.) 

As the buds begin to swell, and before they show any color of 
green or white bloom, it is usually necessary to spray with poison 
to fight the bud worm. This may be added to a weaker solution 
of lime-sulfur to continue the fight against fungous diseases 
and San Jose scale. This spraying as the buds burst sometimes 
consists of arsenate of lead combined with Bordeau.x mixture. If at 
this time the buds are attacked by plant lice, the lime-sulfur will 
help to control this pest also. 



THE SPRAYING CAMPAIGN 



335 



The next spraying should follow immediately after the petals 
fall. This is three pounds paste arsenate of lead in 50 gallons 
summer lime-sulfur. The poison is for the codling moth which 
enters through the calyx cup of the fruit. The lime-sulfui- is to 
combat scab, rot and rust diseases. 

These same spray materials should be applied again in about 
ten days or two weeks. In special cases a third spraying with this 
material ten days or two weeks after the last may be made. Spray- 




■'^ 



•^ 



Fig. 239. — Large shears, e, will hasten the pruning work; hand shears, /, are necessary 
for small trees and twigs. The hole pruner, n, aids in the high tops. The heavy pruning 
knife with hooked blade is used on small limbs and for smoothing the saw work. (Nebraska 
Station.) 

ing later than this will not be necessary except where bitter rot 
is likely to attack the crop. In that case a summer campaign may 
be necessary, spraying every two or three weeks according to the 
frequency of rainfall. This would be practiced only in special 
cases, and should be considered somewhat experimental. The 
material recommended is Bordeaux mixture made with four 
pounds of copper sulfate to six pounds fresh ^unslaked lime in 50 
gallons of water. 



336 



WORK BY SEASONS 



Spraying Campaign for Stone Fruits. — This campaign is very- 
similar to that described for the apple orchard. In general the 
sprajdng is the same for all the stone fruits, including peaches, 



r 





Fig. 240. — Pruning of large limbs should be as close as possible to allow the bark and live 
wood to cover the wound as shown in the central figure. Decay may begin before the new 
growth covers the wound, and a deep hole is formed, as shown at the right. 

plums and cherries. The first winter spraying usually follows the 
heavy winter pruning. This consists of a thorough application of 
winter strength of lime-sulfur solution. It is the chief spray against 

San Jose scale and will aid 
greatly in the control of peach 
scab, brown rot, leaf curl and 
other fungous diseases. 

Use self-boiled lime-sulfur, 

8-8-50, with one pound 

powdered, or two pounds 

paste arsenate of lead: (1) 

When buds first show color 

to kill disease spores and 

{^■Hri^ ,. ^ £^ ^o poison curcuho adults. 

|^|HH|-' ^ ^Sk ^^ North or where curculios 

^ ''***' '^ ■^■™ are less serious, poison may 

be omitted this time; (2) At 
the time the petals fall; (3) 
About one or two weeks later, 
when the stamen rings are 
just dropping from the httle 
green fruits. (See Chapter XXV for making self-boiled lime-sulfur 
by this formula). When brown rot is serious all the later varieties 
of fruits should be again sprayed about a month before they 




Fig. 241. — Curculio beetles in biting peaches 
and plums often cause deformed growth. (New 
Jersey Station.) 



FEBRUARY 337 

ripen. In the South spray for a second brood of curculio about 
two months after the petals fall. For this late spray use the 
same combination of materials as before. 

WORK BY MONTHS FOR SOUTHERN STATES 

January. — The last of January may be suitable for the trans- 
planting of all kinds of shade trees and fruit trees. Vines and 
shrubs may also be transplanted if the ground is not frozen, and if 
the soil is not too wet. Before taking up the plants prepare the 
ground well and dig the holes. 

Favorable days may be selected for the pruning of trees, shrubs 
and vines. All the orchard trees should be pruned this month if 
the weather will permit. By the end of the month spraying may be 
begun, or perhaps completed. 

Remember that the dormant season is the time to make cuttings 
of woody plants for use in grafting or for growth as cuttings. Con- 
sult the propagation list and if you are not familiar with the meth- 
ods of propagation study it for the desired shrubs, vines, etc. 
Make a trial of the cutting method. The cuttings should be taken 
early enough to allow time for callousing in storage before they 
are set in the ground in the spring to be rooted. Try grape vines 
currants, gooseberries, dwarf barberry, golden bell, spirea, syringa, 
and many other ornamentals. 

Try to complete all of the indoor work, such as making of root 
grafts, making new labels, etc. 

The lawn grass should be dressed with stable manure if this was 
not done in the fall. Lime may be used along with the well rotted 
compost to invigorate the growth next spring. 

February. — If the weather is suitable this is a good month to 
begin the search for borers in peach and apple trees. After remov- 
ing the soil to a depth of 3 or 4 inches around each tree watch for 
the borings, and then dig the "worms" out, using a wire or sharp 
pointed knife. Then the earth may be leveled back to the trees. 

If danger of severe freezing is over strawberry plants may be set 
this month. Get the ground in good condition, open the marks 
well, and then set the roots deep enough to avoid danger when dry 
weather comes. Do not cover the growing crown with soil. 

The old strawberry beds that were mulched in the fall should be 
slightly uncovered, or at least some of the plants may be allowed to 
start by the last of February. 

For strawberry beds which were not mulched in the fall the 
22 



338 WORK BY SEASONS 

cultivator may be used at once, then a mulch applied around the 
plants to protect the berries, save moisture and prevent weeds 
until the crop is picked. 

If the spring is late some pruning and spraying will still be in 
order. Also push the planting this month. The plantmg of trees 
and shrubs should not be delayed until the transplanting would 
seriously check their growth. 

February is one of the best months for sodding banks or other 
places where you want grass to take root quickly. 

This month the hedges should be pruned and the ground raked 
and cultivated about them. 

Re-dress the driveways by raking the surface, fill in the washed 
places with new material, give the edges a careful trimming and 
let them have a "dress-up" appearance. 

March. — Begin to clean up the lawn grass by removing the 
winter or fdl dressmg with a sharp rake. If moles or frost have 
raised the soil in places it should be rolled well so that the roots 
will take hold again. 

Much of the spring spraying will come in March. Look over 
the spraying campaign directions and follow them closely. 

The bush fruits must be given some attention. Do not expect 
fruit crops without some effort. Cultivate the ground about them 
and supply more plant food by the use of manure or commercial 
fertilizer. Use wood ashes, if available, around the currant rows. 

The main portion of strawberries should be opened up from 
their winter cover sometune in March if the season is favorable. 
A slight mulch over the hedge-rows of strawberry plants will allow 
them to come through and form their spring flower clusters. This 
should be done as soon as all danger of frost is over, but not before. 
Leave the mulch about the plants until the crop is picked. 

April. — Sometime this month you can raise your own strawberry 
plants by allowing some of the runners to take root in plunged 
pots. If attention is given to these, strong plants can be produced 
which can be set out and bear a crop next year. Surplus runners 
from strawberry plants should be taken off except where the young 
plants are desired. The more runners you cut the more crop you 
can pick from the older plants. 

Watch for insect pests and diseases everywhere this month. Use 
the remedies suggested for each as early as you notice the trouble. 

April may prove to be a dry month, and watering the lawns, 
strawberries and bush fruits may be necessary. Flood the ground 



JULY 339 

at night and let the water soak into the soil well. Extra seed and 
some nitrate of soda may be sown where the lawns are poor. Rake 
in the fertilizer and seeds to cover them with soil. 

May. — Use the cultivator frequently about the bush fruits. As 
soon as any patch of strawberries is picked, remove the mulch, 
mow vines and take them to the compost heap. Then start the 
cultivator immediately. 

This may be the best time for the thinning of fruits on such 
trees as the peach, apple, pear and plum. Leave only enough to 
make a good crop. Do not let the fruits touch each other. You 
will get larger and better fruit if you thin early. 

Pinching off the small shoots may be advisable on the main 
limbs and trunks of peach, plum, and apple 

June. — Continue the summer pruning work so as to direct the 
growth where it should continue. Keep the lawns well mowed, 
and do not let the grass form seed-heads. Cutting grass makes 
better sod. Water the grass well if the weather is dry. 

Blackberries and raspberries may be about through bearing 
before this month is over. The raspberries should be cut back and 
the old canes removed as soon as picking is over. With the black' 
berries use a brush hook and cut the vines to the ground. Remove 
them with forks. If they have been attacked by rust or by borers 
the vines should be burned; otherwise they may go to the compost 
heap to rot. 

July. — As soon as the bush fruits have been pruned they should 
be cultivated thoroughly. Keep up the clean culture until frost. 
This is good practice also for the strawberry patch. 

Prune the hedges again to good form and cultivate the soil near 
them. If the growth is poor m places, feed with manure or com- 
mercial fertilizer. 

If the grapes are in danger from attacks by poultry or birds the 
bunches may be bagged as soon as they begin to show any ripening 
color. 

This may be the month for pruning the blackberries. 

Go over all the shrubs and see if there are any dead or dying 
parts. Prune out the dead rose heads and give all a trimmed 
appearance. 

This is the month for sowing winter cover crops in the orchard. 
Use crimson clover, vetch and rye so the growth will continue 
all winter and early in the spring. This will make a good supply of 
green manure for use in improving the soil the next year. 



340 WORK BY SEASONS 

August.— Watch the lawns closely. This may be a hot, dry 
month and ruin the lawns. Give plenty of water. Keep the 
growth clipped close to prevent evaporation and improve the 
looks. If the ground is cracked badly, harrowing the surface may 
help it. Some nitrate of soda sown over the grass just before 
watering will stimulate the growth at this season. 

This is a good time to plant strawberries. Strong plants should 
be secured by taking those which have been rooted in pots plunged 
near the parent plants, or the strongest plants may be dug from 
near the old plants. These should be set in the new bed and 
watered well. If they are made to grow enough this fall before 
frost comes they will bear a fairly good crop next season, saving 
practically a year's time. 

September.— This should be one of the best months in the year 
for a beautiful show of the home grounds. Keep everything in 
trim, going over the shrubs, mowing the lawn and checking all 
attacks of fall web worm or other insects. 

If it is still necessary to sow a cover crop among the bush fruits 
or in the orchard, use rye chiefly. Vetch will also start Ihis late. 
It is now rather too late for crimson clover unless sown early in 
September. 

October. — Grass seed may be sown profitably early this month. 
As soon as fall rains begin grass seed should be started, so as to 
give as much time for growth as possible before winter. 

Prepare fruits for the fall apple show if one is to be held in your 
community. 

Evergreens may be transplanted this month. Put a good mulch 
over the soil after the planting is done. The work must be done 
carefully to avoid exposure of the roots. 

Much of the planting of shrubs and trees should be done this 
month. Fall is a good time for much of this work in the southern 
states. Look over the catalogs, and order trees and shrubs early. 
Begin the transplanting as soon as the leaves have fallen. 

November. — Transplanting should be pushed in earnest. When- 
ever trees and shrubs are moved, prune the roots to remove broken 
or injured parts. Always prune the top to correspond to the 
pruning of the roots caused by digging. 

You can begin the manuring and mulching of the bush fruits, 
the hedges, and the shrubs this month. Deep litters may cause 
damage by field mice. This can be prevented by tramping or 
rolling the mulch down occasionally until the ground freezes, or 
the work may be delayed until freezing time. 



FEBRUARY 341 

The fall soddine- of lawns and banks may be done this month. 
The wet season of the winter will keep it moist until spring when 
growth will begin. Sod moved carefully before the ground freezes 
is almost sure to grow. 

This is a good time to plant hardy roses including bushes and 
climbers. 

December. — As soon as the ground freezes mulch the shrubs, 
trees and strawberry patches. Lawns should be dressed with a 
winter covering of half-rotted barnyard manure. This can remain 
until growth starts next spring. A little lime with the manure 
will help. 

Try forcing some strawberries in the hot bed. Use thrifty, 
potted plants. Water them well and put them in a fresh hot bed 
for growth. The work is at least interesting if not profitable. 

Late in December is a good time to spray for San Jose scale on 
those trees which are worst affected. 

Pruning the orchard trees should be done this month if the 
weather is favorable. Select good days for the work and begin as 
soon as the leaves are off. If the pruning can be completed before 
the spraying begins it will make the work of spraying more effec- 
tive and save expense. 

WORK BY MONTHS IN NORTHERN STATES 

January. — This is a good month for prunmg trees, vines, and 
shrubs. Winter spraying may be commenced on bright days late 
in this month. 

The strawberry bed should be well mulched, or if this were done 
in the fall, see that the wind has not opened the mulch and exposed 
the bed anywhere. Replace good litter on the bare spots and 
cover with boards or brush to keep it from blowing away. 

If there are scions and stocks available, this is a good time for 
making root grafts of plums, pears, and apples. Scions may be 
taken from the trees at this season, and kept in wet sawdust in the 
cellar until used. Stocks may be purchased from large nurseries. 
Store the grafts when made, as you would the scions. 

February. — Get catalogs of nursery trees and bush fruits. Select 
the varieties and make your order early for the spring shipment. 

Fruit trees and bush fruits should be sprayed with lime-sulfur 
solution to control the San Jose scale. This will also destroy spores 
of disease lurking in the bark. Barnyard manure should be applied 
to the garden during the winter months. 

AH outdoor winter pruning should be completed this month. 



342 WORK BY SEASONS 

March. — -As soon as the frost is out of the ground begin trans- 
planting bush fruits and trees. The earher tliis work is done the 
better. 

Prune out the oldest canes of currants and gooseberries, but 
leave some that are three years old. 

Spade or plow among the bush fruits as soon as the frost is out of 
the gromid, if the soil is not too wet. Applications of manure should 
be made among the bush fruits before the first cultivation. 

A heavy dressing of well-rotted manure may be applied to the 
lawn grass early this month to be raked off in April. This is also a 
good month in which to sow grass seed. 

Spade around shade trees and apply some suitable manure or 
let that be spaded in. 

April. — Look at the instructions for spraying and watch the 
development of fruit trees carefully. Try to spray at exactly the 
right time. 

April should b.e the month for the heaviest planting. Trees and 
shrubs planted later than the last of April are less likely to thrive. 

The first cultivation of orchard trees should be completed in 
April. 

Set out root grafts made during the winter. This may be done 
at any time after the warm spring weather begins. 

May. — Strawberry beds may be started early in May. If the 
old bed has a winter mulch, part it a little over the planxs and let 
them come through. This should be done just after the latest 
killing frost of the region. If mulching was not done in the fall, 
apply a clean mulch of straw or other coarse litter around the 
plants to hold the berries off the ground, to serve as a mulch for 
holding moisture, and to keep down the weeds. 

This is one of the most important months for spraying. If 
peach, apple, pear, and plum blossoms are beginning to shed their 
petals, begin to spray for the curculio and the codling moth. Look 
out for currant worms and other leaf eating insects. Tent cater- 
pillars and similar enemies may begin their work early. 

Estimate the yields of fruit and order the necessary boxes, 
baskets, crates, etc. (Fig. 242). 

Juner-Keep the bush fruits and orchards free from weeds and 
keep the ground well mulched by cultivation. 

Summer pruning may be done in June. Pinch off the shoots that 
start on the main limbs where you do not want them. Careful 
direction of the growth of trees is worth while. 



AUGUST 



343 




As soon as the strawberries are picked, mow down the vines and 
rake off the mulch and vines. This Utter may be rotted in the 
compost heap to destroy insects and diseases. 

Start the cultivator among the strawberry plants immediately 
after cleaning up. This should continue throughout the season until 
the ground freezes. 

Early in June is usually the best time to give attention to the 
thinnmg of peaches, plums, pears, and apples. Remove fruits 
when quite small. Leave them far 
enough apart to avoid touching each 
other when full grown. (Fig. 243). 

July. — The bush fruits should be 
pruned after picking is over. Prune 
back the heads and long canes of 
blackberries and raspberries. 

This is a good time for propagating 
black raspberries by tip-layering. 

If bearing trees have not had their 
crops thinned before this, do it early 
in July. Thinning pays well in im- 
provmg the quality of the fruit. 

The last cultivation of the orchard 
trees may be made late in July. Plant 
a cover crop at this time consisting of rye, winter vetch, and 
perhaps some crimson clover if the climate is not too severe for it. 

Remember to keep the runners well pruned from the strawberry 
plants unless you are practicing the matted-row system. 

August. — Remember the currants, gooseberries, raspberries and 
blackberries. Give them all thorough cultivation during this 
month. They should be forced in their growth until the end of 
August. It will help next year's crop. 

This is a good month in which to start a new strawberry bed. It 
is well to start a new bed every year as the old plants will not bear 
well more than two crops. Take the strongest plants started from 
runners near the old plants. Set these in new rows. Try the 
hedge-row system if you have never tried it before. See Chapter 
XX. Plants started in August should be ready to bear a light 
crop the next year. For this they must be forced to make a good 
growth the first fall. 

Prune the privet hedge and all shrubs and give them good shape 
and let them strengthen the buds they are to form for next year's 



Fig. 242. — Paper -lined berry- 
boxes sometimes used for marketing 
plums. 



344 WORK BY SEASONS 

growth. Hips of roses and ripe seed of other flowering plants may 
be saved for future planting. 

Evergreens can be fairly well transplanted in August if plenty 
of soil is taken with the roots. Slip a box with one end removed 
under the roots as you dig them. Take dirt and all to the new 
location. 

September. — Stop cultivating the orchard by September first. 
No growth should be stimulated in the fall. The cover crop, if not 
planted in August, should be planted now. It will help check the 
fall growth, and will help save the nourishment in the soil for use 
of the trees next year. It will prevent washing of the soil and will 
form a carpet for the fall picking of fruit. 




Fig. 243. — Thin peaches, apples and other large fruits to give them room and strength for 
growth. The fruits are enough larger to pay for the work. (New Jersey Station.) 

The bearing orchard should have the closest attention during 
the fall. All fruits that are ready for harvest should be taken from 
the trees by hand before they fall to the ground. 

Order your trees and shrubs for fall planting. Those who get 
their orders in first have them filled with the best stock. 

October. — It is well to mulch between the rows of raspberries, 
blackberries, currants, and gooseberries. Do this late in October 
after it is too late to stimulate growth this season. The mulch will 
protect the soil from packing, protect the roots from winter, and 
enrich the soil for the next year's growth. 

If manure is not applied in the fall, sow a winter cover crop 
between the rows of bush fruits early in October or before. 

If you have a cranberry "bog" clean it up now for winter. Pull 



DECEMBER 345 

out or mow off the rank growths of any sort. Get the dams and 
gates ready for flooding a Uttle later. 

Try to arouse interest in a fall apple show in your section. Much 
good may result from an exhibit of fruits. 

Secure peach and plum pits for growth of stocks for next season. 
Do not put this off until the supplies are exhausted. Stratifying of 
these seeds may be postponed for a month or two. 

As soon as the leaves have dropped from the fruit trees or bush 
fruits they may be transplanted with safety. If the winters are 
severe always apply a good mulch iiround fall-planted trees and 
bushes. 

Ornamental shrubs of all kinds may as well be transplanted now 
as m the spring. This is the best time in the year for planting 
rhododendron, laurel, and other broad-leaved evergreens. If the 
old leaves are removed at planting tune, new ones will form in 
the spring. 

November..— All the bush fruits, such as blackberries, raspber- 
ries, currants and gooseberries, should be well manured in the fall. 
The strawberry bed should be covered entirely with several inches 
of straw mulch or similar material. 

If you are planning any propagation of peaches, plums or cherries 
get the pits ready for the seedling stocks and put them in layers 
with sand this month, or as soon as freezing begins. This strati- 
fying of the pits out of doors will allow them to become moist, 
freeze, and crack open ready for spring growth. 

Strawberry beds may be mulched for winter late in November. 
It is well to let the ground freeze some before the mulch is spread 
over the plants. Use straw, marsh grass, leaves, corn stalks, pine 
needles or other cheap material that is free from weed seeds. 

Continue planting fruit trees and bush fruits till the ground 
freezes. Fall planting will save time next spring when other 
duties are pressing. 

December. — Orchard trees may be pruned in the fall as soon as 
the leaves are all off. The weather may be more agreeable in 
December than later in the winter. As pruning should always 
precede the spraying of orchard trees, the sooner the annual prun- 
ing is done the more time will we have for choosing good spraying 
weather. 

Such broad-leaved evergreens as rhododendron and laurel should 
be given some winter protection. Shake straw or leaves among 
the plants and almost cover them with it. 



346 WORK BY SEASONS 

Just after the ground freezes, put a top dressing of "short" 
manure over all the lawn grass. If it is allowed to remain all winter 
the result will be gratifying next year. 

EXERCISES, PROJECTS AND FIELD STUDIES 

1. Pruning is good practice work for students. Prune fruit trees of as 
many types as possible. Also prune ornamental shrubs and vines. 

2. Trips to neighboring orchards should be made from time to time, to 
study the bush fruit and orchard practices of different growers. Study the 
methods of spraying, pruning, cultivation, and fertihzing in use by each grower. 
Afterwards write up the plans and emphasize the good and bad points in the 
practices. 

3. Projects in the care and management of an orchard of any ty]5e, car- 
ried on for a year or more, may require special attention to trials in different 
ways of cultivation, different amounts or kinds of fertilizer, methods of fight- 
ing borers, etc. The special problems assigned with the project should be in 
harmony with the particular needs of the orchard to be used. For example, if 
codhng moth has been extremely bad, use all the known remedies and compare 
the results. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give an outline of the year's work in the apple orchard. 

2. Same in the peach or plum orchard. 

3. Give a good plan for the year's cultivation of orchards. 

4. Give a number of points regarding the pruning of apple trees; of peach 

trees. 

5. Describe the spraying campaign in the apple orchard. 

6. Give the spraying campaign for stone fruits. 

7. Give some suggestions for work in the orchard, berry .patches, and lawns, 

for your region, by seasons: a, winter work; 6, spring work; c, summer 
work; d, autumn work. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 181, Pruning; 440, Spraying 
Peaches for Brown Rot, Scab, and Curcuho; 494, Lawns and Lawn Soils; 887, 
Raspberry Culture. 

Productive Orcharding, Sears, J. B. Lippincott Company; Productive 
Small Fruit Culture, Sears, J. B. Lippincott Company; Beginners Guide to 
Fruit Growing, Waugh, Orange Judd Co. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
CONTROL OF WEEDS 

The noxious weeds are of three main types. (1) Those which 
grow from seed each year and die in the winter; these are called 
annuals. Examples: purslain (Fig. 244), pig weed, rag weed, etc. 
(2) Those which grow continually year after year from the same 
underground parts, but may die to the ground each year; these are 
called perennial herbs. Examples: dock, Canada thistle, quack 
grass,' Johnson grass, plantain (Fig. 245), dandelion, etc. (3) Those 
which grow one year from seeds and store nourishment in the 
underground parts and die to the ground the first winter. During 
the second gi'owing season they make a rapid growth from the 
nourishment in the underground parts and produce flowers and 
seeds, after which they die completely the second winter, the only 
live part remainmg bemg the seeds. These are called biennials. 
Examples: burdock, wild carrot, and many others. 

Relation of Type to Methods of Control. — As annual weeds die 
each year it is not difficult to eradicate them. All that is necessary 
is to keep them from going to seed. In that case they will all be 
dead by winter. They spread each year by seed, and if the seeds 
are allowed to form they will not be injured by winter. They will 
spread, and the weeds will become more numerous and more widely 
dispersed each year. 

Annual weeds are usually found in cultivated fields where the 
seeds find a good seed bed for germination. Gardens are much 
more troubled with annual weeds than with perennials. 

Perennials and biennials are more common along fence rows, 
road sides and in orchards or other places that are not regularly 
cultivated. 

Such weeds store nourishment in the underground parts and 
live from year to year if their roots are not destroyed by tillage. 
The most successful way of destroying perennials is to plow and 
cultivate thoroughly. Nearly all perennials are easily destroyed 
by this method. There are a fev/ with runners or rootstock that 
are difficult to cut with tillage implements; among them may be 
mentioned quack grass, Johnson grass (Fig. 246), Canada thistle 
and Bermuda grass. Weeds of the wild onion type which have 

347 



348 



CONTROL OF WEEDS 



bulbs that will grow in any position are also difficult to get rid of 
by a limited amount of tillage. Thorough and frequent cultivation 
however, will destroy weeds of this type. 

Weed Dissemination. — All three classes of weeds bear seeds and 
are spread by this method for long distances. Weeds that form 
their seeds in burs, such as burdock, cockle bur, sand bur, bidens, 
Spanish needles and others are often carried on the coats of animals 
for long distances. They literally catch rides to their new homes. 

Tickle grass, tumble weed, 
and a few others of that type 
spread by the whole body car- 
rying seeds, rolling m the wind 
for miles and miles. Occasionally 
these are carried high in the air, 
but usually are found rollmg on 
the ground. Many seeds, such as 

Fie. 244. 



Tig. 245. 





Fig. 244. — Purslane; entire plant. (Minnesota Station.) 
Fig. 245. — Buckhorn Plantain; 1, entire plant; 3, seedling; 4, seed enlarged. (Minnesota 

Station.) 

milkweed, dandelion, thistle and others may be carried by strong 
wind to distant places. Still others, such as the dock and wild 
carrot, may be blown somewhat by the wind and will also 
float upon water, where they are carried by either waves or cur- 
rents to new fields. 

Many perennial weeds have other means of spreading than by 
seeds. The underground stems, runners, etc., will spread weeds. 
Some of the worst grasses, Canada thistle, sheep sorrel, toad flax 
and many more are thus spread. Frequently such seeds are 



PRINCIPLES OF WEED CONTROL 



349 



spread by means of tillage implements which merely transfer them 
from place to place. The more quack grass is cultivated the more 
it may be spread. 

Principles of Weed Control. — It is miportant to study the hfe of 
a weed if you wish to eradicate it. Learn its habits and then you 
can control it. It is easy to detect a weed that stores nourishment 




Fig 



240. — Base of Johnson grass showing the joints on the underground stems or "roots,' 
from which numerous grass stems arise. This makes it a serious weed. 



in the underground parts. One can find the mass of stored material 
by pulling it up. Then you know it is not an annual. 

If weeds have abundant rootstocks, as quack grass and Canada 
thistle, you cannot hope to find all of these numerous growths 
ramifying the soil. The control methods recommended in each 
case are to smother the plant. 

Remember that plants cannot Vive if they do not have leaves 
exposed to the air during a part of the growing season. In chicken 
yards and pig pens where the leaves are continually eaten off the 



350 



CONTROL OF WEEDS 



roots and underground stems are killed. Light and air are neces- 
sary for the successful growth of any chlorophyll-bearing plants, 
whether they are weeds or not. 

Smothering plants by means of tar paper, covers of manure, 
straw or even with the growth of crops which over-shadow them 
are methods resorted to in special cases. For example, such weeds 
as persistent as Bermuda grass are sometimes killed by the growth 



Fig. 247. 



Fig. 248. 




F*IG. 247. — Prickly Lettuce; 1, section of plant showing leaf arrangement; ^, top i 

3, seedling; 5, seed natural size and enlarged. (Minnesota Station!) 
Fig. 248. — Crab Grass. 1, Entire plant; 2, enlarged flower spike; 3, seedling; 4, seedling 
sonuewliat older. tMinnfisota Station.) 



of a smothering crop such as alfalfa, millet or wheat. The smother 
crop must be seeded densely to accomplish this end. 

Seed Laboratories to Control Weeds. — Seed laboratories have 
been established in nearly all the states for the control of the weed 
nuisance. Regulations and laws are published which fix the stand- 
ard for purity of seeds sold in the state, as well as standard for 
germination. Samples are examined in the laboratories and bad 
lots of seed are condemned. 

Farmers and gardeners are able to choose seeds which have 
been tested for both purity and germination. Too often the sower 



'\i\^EDS AND GRASSES IN ORCHARDS 



351 



is the chief cause for the spread of weed seeds. Much care must be 
exercised to prevent spreading weeds. 

Losses from Weeds. — There are several sources of loss due to 
weed growth. (1) They rob the crop of the plant food which it 
needs; (2) they use the moisture which the crop should use; (3) 
they crowd and strangle the crop; (4) they often poison soils and 
make them unsuitable for the crops. 



Fig. 249 



Fig. 250. 




F^G. 249. — Black Mustard: 1, top of plant; 2, seedling; 5, seed small and enlarged. 

(Minnesota Station.) 

Fig. 250.— Five-Finger; 1, top of plant; 2, seedling; 3, seedling somewhat older; 4, separate 

leaf; 5, seed enlarged. (Minnesota Station.) 

It may be said that weeds are beneficial in some respects. They 
cause the owner to till the soil when otherwise he might neglect 
it. Some are good for feeding pigs or other stock, prickly lettuce 
(Fig. 247), pig weeds and others are relished by swine. 

Weeds and Grasses in Orchards. — It has already been shown in 
this volume that orchards should have a cover crop started about 
the middle of July or first of August, The purpose of this is to 
check the wood growth of the trees and cause them to ripen there 



352 



CONTROL OF WEEDS 



wood and buds ready for winter. Weeds and grasses will appear in 
the orchard soon after tillage stops. Crab grass is often very per- 
sistent and will spring up quickly after cultivation ceases (Fig. 248). 
If the owner does not sow a cover crop at this time weeds will, to 




Fig. 251. — Golden rod is often abundant along fences, roads, and in pastures. It is a 
perennial weed easily controlled by rotation of crops. 

some extent, form a natural cover crop. The growth of the weeds 
will fulfill a number of the benefits of the cover crop which the 
owner should have sown. However, most of them do not persist 
through the winter, as a winter crop should do. Weeds which 
start in midsummer are likely to prove to be annuals which are 



WEEDS AND GRASSES IN ORCHARDS 



353 



killed by.winter. Crab grass (Fig. 248), tumble grass, and similar 
annual grasses are of little benefit as winter cover crops. The 
orchardist should not excuse himself from sowing a good winter 
cover crop by thinkmg that the weeds will do as well. The amount 
of plant food collected by the growth of orchard weeds will not 
form a very valuable green manure crop the next spring. It is 



Fig. 252. 



Fig. 25.3. 




Fig. 252.^WiId Buckwheat; 1, entire plant; 2, plant winding around a sta.lk of timothy, 

5, seedling somewhat older; 6, seed small and enlarged. (Minnesota Station.) 
Fig. 253. — Pennsylvania Smartweed; 1, top of plant; 4, seed enlarged. (Minnesota Station.) 

far better to sow a crop of winter grain mixed with some winter 
legume, such as vetch or perhaps crimson clover, which will make a 
green carpet over the soil for pruning and spraying work of the 
winter season. A cover crop which grows through the winter and 
early spring will prevent leaching away of much plant food. It will 
also prevent erosion. Best of all, it will form a valuable manure 
crop when turned under the following spring. 
23 



354 CONTROL OF WEEDS 

Escaped Weeds. — Some f)lants are grown for human food or 
for stock feed and are allowed to escape from cultivation. The 
black mustard (Fig. 249) and the dandelion are familiar examples 
of this class of weeds. The bulbous buttercup and others with 
beautiful flowers have escaped from gardens in the Old Worlcl 
and in America. Five-finger (Fig. 250) is perhaps a weed of this 
character. 

EXERCISES, PROJECTS, AND FIELD STUDIES 

1. Identifying weeds of different kinds is best done in orchards, gardens, 
etc., where hve specimens are seen in their growing conditions. Not only learn 
names of the different kinds, but also the group as to length of life. Learn 
their methods of spreading seeds, study root systems, and decide whether they 
are called "noxious" or not. Also learn to know the weeds of fence rows, such 
as astei-s and golden rods. 

2. Weed collections may be made to press, dry, and mount for future 
reference in each home and at school. Be sure to collect all the weeds shown 
in the figures of this chapter and many others of your region. 

3. Weed seeds should be collected in envelopes and bottles. Each kind 
should be labelled. These will aid in identifying bad weed seeds mixed with 
garden and farm seeds. 

4. The worst weeds, such as wild onion, quack grass, Johnson grass, and 
Canada thistle, should be studied carefully. Their methods of spreading under 
ground and their storage of food, should be learned well. 

5. Special methods of fighting these should be tried in a number of places. 
Special methods may sometimes include using salt, smothering, frequent tillage, 
plowing at stated seasons, use of hogs, close grazing by sheep, mowing, burn- 
ing, oihng, special chemicals. 

6. The fighting of noxious weeds may be assigned as a special feature of 
certain productive projects in gardens and orchards. 

7. Efforts of Neighbors. — On various neighboring places study the efforts 
to eradicate weeds by rotations, plowing, cultivation, etc. 

8. Group of Weeds. — Study weeds by groups as (1) the bad grasses, (2) 
the joint-weed group (Figs. 252 and 253), (3) the pig weed group, (4) the sun- 
flower group. Relationships will be seen by noticing the similarity of members 
of the same group. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Mention the three classes of weeds. Give examples of each which you know 

at sight. 

2. What relation has the type to methods of control? 

3. What are some of the notable methods of weed dissemination? 

4. What methods of dissemination of weed seeds have you observed? 

5. What are some of the principles of weed control? 

6. Enumerate the chief kinds of losses from weeds. 

7. Discuss the presence of weeds and grasses in orchards. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 279, Eradicating Johnson Grass; 
610, Wild Onion; 660, Weeds. R. I. Exp. Station Bulletin 133, Weeds, their 
Eradication and Control. 

Manual of Weeds, Georgia, Macmillan Company; Weeds of Farm and 
Garden, Pammel, Orange Judd Co. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

THE HOME WOOD LOT 

The farm home is not complete without a wood lot or shelter 
belt of trees (Fig. 254). Homes in the prairie states, as well as 
those in the natural ly wooded regions, should have a block of trees 
permanently growing for the shelter and products which it yields. 
The densely populated countries of the Old World find the princi- 
ples of forestry worth following m the maintenance of wood lots. 
Wood products are so valuable that we ought not to continually 




Fig. 254. — Trees, vines and shrubs not only add to the beauty of the farm home but the 
shade insures comfort to people and livestock. 

neglect their production and ruthlessly destroy our native forests 
without doing something to conserve and replenish the products 
which we need so much. 

Products of the Wood Lot.— Wood lots in general yield many 
products valuable on the farm, in the manufactures and in com- 
merce. The following products have been enumerated : Nuts and 
fruits, sugar and syrup (Fig. 255), quinine, salicin, oils of sassafras, 
eucalyptus, beechnut and olive, matches, tooth picks, clothes 
l^ins, pencils, penholders, handles, baskets, shoe pegs, wooden 
dishes, wood alcohol, acetates, wood tar, potash, turpentine, resin, 
creosote, pitch, cork, tannic acid, charcoal, spruce gum, lamp 
black, excelsior, lumber, posts, poles, ties, fuel, and pulp. 

355 



S56 



THE HOME WOOD LOT 



The Farmer's Needs.^ — From the farmer's own point of view it 
is worth while to have a wood lot. His home fuel supply is needed, 
wood for poles, posts, rails and other articles is also needed. This 
surely is enough to warrant his keeping a good wood lot perpetu- 
ally on his place. 

Location and Soils. — If possible, the wood lot should be made to 
occupy a place not valuable for other crops. A hill side too steep 
for cultivated crops may be used. A stony field where tillage imple- 




FiG. 255. — The home wood lot of maples may furnish a supply of sugar and syrup. 



ments cannot be used will grow forest trees (Fig. 256). Low, wet 
lands flooded during the wet season may be made to grow those 
those kinds of trees which endure such conditions. Denuded hill 
sides (Fig. 257), or gullied old-fields may be planted to locusts and 
other trees which will thrive there. 

Many hill sides and worthless lands have been cleared of native 
woods with no excuse whatever. The owner merely robbed Nature 
of her timber wood supply, without leaving trees with which to 
reforest the place. 

Wind Breaks and Shelter Belts.— The Middle West, including 



LOCATION AND SOILS 



357 



^^^5^^ ( 


^*^K 




1 


1 










r^'v-^ 




m 






lfe^'>. 




'"^ii^K 


'^jjB^^M 


m^m 










/^^^ 


\^^^^ 


W'^ 








Im 


mm 


m 




k''^' .j^^^^^^^^l 




im^^ 


'W 


^H 


1 




mm 



Fig, 256. — Why not let the entire rocky areas of the farm grow dense crops ol timber? 

(Photo by Waugh.) 




Fig. 257. — ihe rugt;ei.l banks of streams may well be used for the growth of posts, ties, fuel, 
etc. (Photos by Waugh.) 



358 



THE HOME WOOD LOT 



the prairie states would be greatly improved by having a number 
of wind breaks and wide shelter belts on every farm. A shelter 
belt differs from a wind break in the width of the area planted. 
There are objections to growing trees near productive fields because 
of plant food which the trees take from the soil near the crops. A 




Fig. 258. — White pines make rapid growth of wood valuable for lumber. The^ must be 
grown in dense plantations for best results. (Photo by Waugh.) 

shelter belt will do no more damage to the adjoining field than the 
narrow wind break, and will on the other hand produce far more 
timber products in proportion to the amount of land used. 

The timber grown on a wide shelter belt is of better quality than 



HOW TO GET THE TREES FOR PLANTING 



359 



that grown in a narrow wind break. Trees grown in wide planta- 
tions will grow straight, and have fewer knots than those having 
open ground on both sides. Compare the trees in figures 258 and 
259 as to number of limbs and timber knots. The denser the trees 
are grown the taller and straighter will be the timber, and the 
freedom from laiots and side limbs is remarkable. 

Shelter belts should be planted with trees that are suited to the 
region. In the Middle West walnuts, hickories, elms and other 
hardwoods are usually thrifty and successful (Fig. 260). The 




Fig. 259. — Spruce, cedar and pine will grow well on rocky hill sides. (Photo by Waugh.) 

cone-bearing trees, such as pines, hemlocks, and spruces would 
not endure the dry seasons of much of the western prairie region. 
Select those trees which you find by the experience of others have 
proved themselves suitable to your section. 

The width of the shelter belt may be made to suit the desires 
and conditions of the owner. Plant the trees about six to eight 
feet apart each way and mingle the varieties rather than plant all 
one kind in solid blocks. 

How to Get the Trees for Planting. — Forest nurseries are main- 
tained in nearly all states. When very young the trees may be 



360 



THE HOME WOOD LOT 



bought by the thousand at nominal prices. Owners may also 
grow their own trees by buying or gathering seeds and planting 
them in nursery rows and giving proper attention and tillage. 




Fig. 260. — A mixture of hardwood and evergreens is most successful in the farm woodlot. 

(Indian Rock Farm.) 

Some kinds are much more thrifty than others, while young, and 
these are best for home growth. Hardy catalpa may be grown 




•aLiiaa^ae^S^-^^^^^aa^*"*^ :r^-.:«*<^'^.'^;* - ""^'^Jn^i 



Fig. 261. — Seeds of catalpa and many other trees may be drilled in rows so that the young 
trees may be cultivated for a year before transplanting to the wood lot or shelter belt. 

from seeds in rows to be cultivated with horse cultivators (Fig. 
261). They are large enough in a few weeks after germination to 
allow of thorough cultivation. 



SCIENTIFIC HAR\:ESTING 361 

Planting and Care. — When the trees are transplanted to the 
shelter belt it is well to plant them m some wholesale way after the 
ground has been thoroughly prepared. Do not expect the trees to 
thrive if smothered by grass, weeds or other wild growth. It is 
better to give the plantation thorough tillage for a year or two. 
Plant mter-crops, such as potatoes, cabbage or any crop which 
requires thorough cultivation. They help pay for the work and 
will induce the owner to cultivate the trees. Damage from tillage 
instruments must be guarded against. 

After the trees are large enough to reasonably fill the ground, 
tillage and the growth of inter-crops may cease. Nature will usually 
do her own pruning. As the trees become crowded the side limbs 
will drop off, except at the top. There is no objection to pruning 
off the lower limbs in places where they become large and would 
tend to form large knots in the timber. The prunings should be 
gathered and used for fuel. Never allow them to rot on the ground. 
They would encourage attacks of bark beetles and other forest 
insects which first begin in dead twigs and then spread to the live 
trees. 

Scientific Harvesting. — The modern principles of forestry teach 
scientific harvesting (Fig. 262). This means that the products 
from the wood lot or shelter belt may be secured without injuring it 
or in any way destroying the future growth of products in the 
plantation. A number of principles of forestry should here be 
considered. 

1. Cut trees only when they are mature. Those which are 
still growing rapidly and increasing their wood from year to year 
should not be harvested. 

2. In cutting trees make them fall in such a way as not to 
injure undergrowth or to ruin the saplings near by. This may 
require more effort on the part of the woodsman, than careless 
falling of trees. They may need to resort to the use of pulleys and 
ropes to remove some of the top before the tree falls. This, how- 
ever, is not always necessary. 

3. Use all parts of the fallen trees, not leaving anything which 
can be of use to man. Too often we find this rule violated. Not 
more than half the product of native woods has been used; the 
remainder has been lost or worse than lost; it has Qven been 
left to decay and caused the breeding of millions of forest insects 
that have afterward attacked the live trees and destroyed millions 
of feet of lumber. 



362 



THE HOME WOOD LOT 



4. When harvesting whole blocks or sections that have been 
started at about the same time and are maturing somewhat together 
always leave enough seed-bearing trees to reforest the area. Speci- 
mens for this purpose may be selected that are less valuable for 
lumber or other purposes and will bear an abundant supply of 
seeds for reforestation, 

5. Growth from stumps, called coppice growth, should be used 




Fig. 262.— Carofiil harvosting of th' 



wood crop will make the wood lot permanent. 
(U.S.D.A.) 



as far as possible to reforest the area. Clean out the growth not 
desired. 

6. Remove dead and injured trees regardless of their size to 
help control forest insects. 

7. Prevent forest fires by never allowing fires to be kindled in 
them, by plowing, by burning back-fire strips around the forest, by 
keeping the brush well cleaned up, by watching constantly during 
dry seasons, and by posting up notices to warn all campers and 
hunters against starting fires. Replant all areas that have been 
swept by fire or by severe storms. 



RELIEF FROM TAXATION 



363 



Profits from Forests on Poor Land. — Mention has already been 
made of the kinds of places most suited for forest planting. We 
would scarcely expect a farmer to plant a very large area with 
forest trees unless the land were unsuited to agricultural purposes. 
Of course, where the trees produce a shelter belt, more valuable 
land may be used because the belt will be placed where it will 
shelter the farm buildings and the farmstead in general. 

The income from poor land (Figs. 263) may be greatly increased 
by its use for growing forest products. The growth of catalpa 
wood, or walnut and locust posts, chestnut poles and other valuable 
products, are well worth considering as a resource of the farm. 




Fig. 263. — Rocky places should be used for growth of forest trees. The Lyall Larch here 
shown has very shallow roots. (Montana Station.) 

The profits are slow in being realized, but when the yield begins 
the annual income may be calculated by dividing it by the number 
of years required to produce it. After the harvest begins an annual 
income may be produced. The present price of railroad ties, fence 
posts, telephone poles and logs for lumbering warrant the use of 
poor lands for their production. 

Relief from Taxation. — The laws of several states are such that 
lands devoted to scientific forestry are relieved from taxation for a 
period of years. Reports may be made to the assessors and the 
areas may then be relieved of taxes, perhaps long enough to grow 
a crop of posts, poles, ties or saw timber. 



364 



THE HOME WOOD LOT 



Benefits to the State. — The reason for these laws is that the 
state is benefited in a number of ways. 

The forest carpet of twigs, leaves, etc., prevents the rapid 
run-off of water and thus sprmgs and streams are kept constantly 
supplied from the rainfall of such forested areas (Fig. 264). Where 
forests have been cut off streams frequently go dry during the 
summer. The water power of mills and factories is thus weakened 
or exhausted. The water slipply of homes, villages and cities is 
often reduced to the danger point. Large streams which should be 
navigable the year round are too low in dry weather, and too high 
m wet weather. 

Forests often break or mterrupt heavy winds and thus prevent 




Fig. 264. — Whore streams are bordered by trees and the fields covered with grass or other 
protection the water is clear and soil is not being eroded. 

serious damage to property. The drying out of soil is prevented by 
the mulch of leaves and twigs, and the soil is not badly beaten 
down by heax-y rains. The flow-off from such areas is very gradual 
and freshets are prevented. 

The temperature of the soil is controlled and somewhat equalized 
by forest growths. At night and during cold snaps trees retard the 
loss of heat from the ground under them. The shade of the trees 
also prevents the intense heat of mid-day. 

Wind breaks tend to conserve the water in the area near them. 
Of course the trees take considerable water in the soil reached by 
their roots, but the breaking of the wind saves soil water in wide 
strips on the lee of the trees. 



QUESTIONS 365 

PROJECTS, EXERCISES, AND FIELD STUDIES 

1. A forest nursery project should include (1) preparation of soil, (2) 
planting of seeds or setting of plants from seed bed, (3) cultivation, (4) digging, 
sorting, counting, bunching, (5) sale or transplanting to wood lot. Keep 
records of expenses, varieties, numbers, sales, etc. 

2. Starting a wood lot or shelter belt may be a home project. It should 
include (1) planning, (2) selection of site, (3) preparation of ground for the 
young trees, (4) setting the trees, (5) inter-cropping if possible, (6) all care for 
at least one growing season. 

3. Collections of wood and forest seeds should be made for homes and for 
schools. Mount woods to show cross-sections and longitudinal views of the 
grain. Also show the polished and varnished surfaces of those that are suit- 
able for this. Samples of bark may be placed with each. Seeds may be placed 
in bottles and labelled. 

4. Forest products of other kinds may be assembled. Include as many as 
possible of those mentioned in this chapter. 

5. Wood products of many kinds may be assembled for special exhibits. 

6. Study of gullying should be made on a field trip. At the same time note 
the influence of tree growth in holding soil and preventing floods from starting 
gullies. 

7. Streams, wells and springs should be studied in both wet and dry 
seasons. If possible take the actual rate of flow at each season, and note the 
influence of wooded areas on these flows in different localities. 

8. The forest carpet and the amount and source of leaf-mold should be 
examined in several places. Compare these in young and old woods. 

9. Effects of Forest Carpet. — Tilt a small table at an angle of about thirty 
degrees. Place on this a large sheet of blotting Daper. At the upper side slowly 
pour a glass of water on the blotter. Note the time required for water to flow 
to the lower edge of table. Now remove the blotter and repeat the trial on the 
bare table. How does the experiment show the effects of a forest carpet? How 
does a forest prevent serious floods? 

10. Learn to know the trees of the region in both summer and winter con- 
ditions. The trees with deep tap roots, and those with shallow roots may be 
listed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What can you say of the need of a wood lot for each farm? 

2. What are the chief products of the woods in your region? 

3. Describe some good locations for the farm wood lot. 

4. What is the need for wind breaks and shelter belts in prairie states? 

5. Suggest ways of obtaining trees for planting. 

6. What care will the young plantation require? 

7. Give important points in scientific harvesting. 

8. Discuss the profits from forests on poor land. 

9. How do forests influence floods, wells, springs, streams, and drouth? 
10. What observations have you made along these lines? 

References. — ^U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 516, Production of Maple Sirup 
and Sugar; 622, Basket Willow Culture; 700, Pecan Culture; 745, Waste Land 
and Wasted Land on Farms; 788, Windbreak as an Asset; 843, Important 
Pecan Insects and Control; 1071, Making Woodland more Profitable in South; 
1100, Marketing Woodland Products; 1177, Farm Woodland; 1184, Ginseng 
Culture. 

The Farm Woodlot, by Cheyney, The MacmillanCo.; Farm Forestry, by 
Ferguson, John Wiley & Sou. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 

Too often the country home gives the appearance of neglect. 
Some owners seem to tliink that a well kept place is only for city 
people. On the other hand, the country home should be beautified. 
Improvements should be made by planting of shrubs, shade trees, 
care of lawns, painting buildings, using vines to cover unsightly 
objects, laying out of walks and roads, surfacing these with good 
wearing material, terracing slopes, providing proper drains where 
water washes, etc. 

Educational Value of Beautif3:mg. — Children need to be trained 
in the sense of appreciation of the beautiful. If they are surrounded 
by unsightl;;^ objects they are unconsciously trained to lilvc such 
things. If, however, they are surrounded by beautiful grounds 
and their attention is called to the beauties of flowers, shrubs and 
trees, they will always love them and wish to have them on their 
own premises. Compare figures 265 and 266. 

Financial Benefits. — The financial argument is one which usually 
strikes the farmer most forcibly. His place may be enhanced in 
value by the use of paint, and growmg trees, shrubs and flowers. 
A well kept farmstead will attract buyers, and cause neighbors to 
remark frequently of the value of the place (Fig 267) . A neglected 
home seems to be out of consideration by buyers, and the neigh- 
bors will sneer when the place is mentioned. 

The small cost of planting trees and flowers is far more than 
balanced by the enhanced value of the place. A few vines may be 
started with a few cents' worth of seeds. These may be caused to 
cover unsightly buildings, shade porches, or cover stumps and 
fences. A few trees will cost so little that they will pay for their 
value in shade they furnish (Fig. 268). 

Plans for Planting. — Before domg any extensive or permanent 
planting a drawing of the grounds should be made. On paper you 
can change the lines of roads and walks in a moment; not so after 
they are made in reality. Compare the pairs of plans in figures 269 
to 271 Make the plan suit your ideals, but be practical in all this 
work. Do not try to make roads up steep places. Let them wind 
around a gentle grade with beautiful curves and angles in roads 
366 



PLANTING TO SUIT BUILDINGS 



367 



and walks ; let shrubbery be grouped in masses rather than scattered 
about the ground) (Fig. 271). 

Choose permanent plants rather than annual plants. When you 
set a clump of shrubbery you should feel that it is permanent 
rather than temporaiy. Do not let this mterfere, however, with 
planting of annuals for quick effect at first. You can hide an 
unsightly corner and give a beautiful effect with such annual 




Fig. 265. — This tall house would be much improved by groups of trees, shrubbery, and 
vines. (Productive Bee Keeping.) 

plants as sun-flowers, scarlet sage, annual hollyhocks, castor beans 
and others (Fig. 277). 

Planting to Suit Buildings. — If the house or other building is 
tall, do not put a Lombardy poplar tree or other slender growth 
near by. Plant broad-headed trees to balance the stilted effect of 
the building. If the house is low and spreadmg, the tall slender 
growth may be used with better effect. Notice the harmony of 
residence and large trees in figure 272. Massing shrubs has already 
been mentioned. This plan helps to blend the lines of buildings 



368 



BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 



with the smooth lawn surface. Evergreens for example, can be 
left unpruned to the gromid. Their lines of beauty will blend 
harmoniously with their surroundings. Never leave any bare 
corners unprotected by shrubbery. Some one has said that when 




Fig. 26G. 



-The trees and shrubbery about the farm home may be chiefly native plants 
obtained for little or no outlay of money. (U.S.D.A.) 



we fail to plant shrubs along the base of buildings we give the effect 
that it needs clothes, because it seems to be bare-footed. All the 
plants should be so effective as to embellish the surroundings. 

Grouping Trees. — Even trees may be grouped so that they will 
give an effect of massing after they have become large. When 
trees are scattered over the lawn it is difficult to mow the lawn 



Trees to plant 



36^ 



with a horse mower or with a hand mower. They are always in 
the way of the machine and they are in the way of seeing the beau- 
tiful things 3'ou have planted. Better leave some plain greensward 




Fig. 267. — An ideal location for the farm buildings. The residence is among the trees 
on higher ground than the barns, which are also on a well-drained ridge. Note that all 
buildings are painted and kept up. (U.S.D.A.) 

as part of the canvas of your picture. Put the trees as you do the 
shrubs, at the corners, angles, and along the borders. There is no 
objection to planting some straight lines of trees along roads, 




Fio. 268. — A few community meetings in the side yards of the neighborhood will encourage 
the beautification of the premises. 

fences, etc. These straight lines may be broken occasionally; at 
least at the ends they may blend into masses of shrubbery. 

Trees to Plant. — For quick effect, rapid growths are sometimes 
desired. Cottonwoods or poplars are sometimes used where shade 
must be produced quickly. Remember that the trees which grow 
24 



370 



BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 



fast are seldom permanent; they will die young. For more perma- 
nent growths we would probably select elms, maples, oaks and 
other slow growing kinds. 

Among those which grow rather quickly, and are also rather 
permanent might be mentioned walnut, hardy catalpa, hickory 
and tulip tree. 



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FiG. 269. — Showing poorly planned walks, drives and planting. 

For wet places we would select willows, swamp maple, sycamore, 
alder and others growing naturally along the water's edge of 
streams. 

Shrubs to Plant.— It is well for the owner to select those shrubs 
which are native to his region. What is more beautiful as a shrub 
than the wild rose, wild blackberry, wild elderberry, and others 



HEDGES 



371 



which may perhaps be transplanted from their wild surroundings 
near by? 

There are a number of other shrubs that are always popular and 
much to be desired. Lilac, spirea (Fig. 273),syringa, goklenbell, 
deutzia, althea, hibiscus and others may be purchased at low prices 
and can be afterward greatly multiplied by easy methods. Many 




Fig. 27U. — Same as figure 269, replanned. 



of these may be grown by hard wood cuttings taken in the winter. 
For hedges use such plants as California privet, Chinese privet, 
hemlock, cedars, lilac, Japanese quince, Osage orange and others. 
Most of these can be trimmed to any form desired and made to 
produce dense growths. Some of these are sometimes used as 
formal plantings in parks (Fig. 274). 



372 



BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 



The boxwood shrubs may be used either as ornamental clumps 
or for hedges. The growth is extremely slow, but the beauty will 
compensate for waiting. 




Fig. 271. — A, plan of school grounds showing improper planting. The trees and shrubs 
should not be scattered over the lawn. It is better to mass them in the corners, along bor- 
ders, or in the angles and curves of walks and driveways. B, same grounds with planting well 
grouped. (U.S.D.A.) 

Vines to Plant. — Vines have several ways of cHmbing. Always 
choose those vines that will climb upon the object which you are 
trying to cover. Do not make the mistake of trying to make twin- 
ing vines climb on stone walls or buildings. Give each its natural 



CLUMPS OF SPIREA 



373 




Fig. 272. — A high house on a hill is much relieved by large tiees ab<>\it it. (hinips of 
shrubbery to hide the base would be a great improvement. (Photo by Waugli.) 




Fig, L'73. — Clumps of spirea may be used to adorn shops and barns. (Michigan Station.) 



374 BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 

way of climbing, and it will save you much effort in trying to make 
it ascend to the heights you desire. Good plants for stone or brick 
surfaces are Boston ivy, English ivy, Englemann's ivy, and Vir- 
ginia creeper on fences. 

A good vine to cover dead trees, stumps and wooden buildings is 
trailing burning bush, (Euonymus radicans). Virginia creeper and 
trumpet vine are fairly well suited to such locations. 

Vines for wire trellises are the grape, wisteria, Virginia creeper, 
Virginia clematis, pannicled clematis (Fig. 275), Madeira vine, 
the beans of various kinds, such as Japanese bean (Lablab), velvet 
bean, and others. Sometimes it is necessary to change the kind of 




Fu;. 27 1. — A striking example of formal gardening with grass plots laid off in geometric 
forms by the growth of evergreens and privet hedge. 

support to suit the vine. If vines are already growing near some 
building a pole may be erected or a wire may be stretched up to 
accommodate them. 

Annual vines should often be used where quick effects are desired, 
Aniong these might be mentioned cypress vine, gourds (Fig. 276) 
wild cucumber, morning glory, the different kinds of climbing 
beans, and moonvine. Where perennial kinds can be started at 
the same time this should be done to avoid having to replant each 
year and wait for the growth each season. 

Annual plants may be used for quick effects. Castor beans, 
shown in figure 277, are very effective. Masses of hemp, sun- 
flowers, hollyhocks from seeds, cosmos, and other shrub-like flower- 
ing plants of the herbaceous kinds are effective the first year. 



ENCOURAGING GROWTH OF ORNAMENTALS 



375 



Encouraging Growth of Ornamentals. — When shrubs, vines and 
trees are planted for ornamental purposes they should be given as 




Fig. 275. — The panicled clematis is a perennial vine, producing a beautiful bower of white 
flowers in late summer and fall. 




Fig. 276. — Gourds are annual vines which may be used to make a quick screen. Eastern 
lUinois Normal. (U.S.D.A.) 



favorable conditions as if they were to yield a crop for profit. 
Make the soil rich and give them enough care to make them thrive. 
Do not expect vines to cover the buildings if the soil is poor. A 



376 



BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 



forkful of manure well mixed with the soil at planting time will 
pay. The results seen in a thrifty flower garden or border are very 
encouraging (Figs. 278 and 279). When a fine old shrub is un- 
thrifty investigate the case and remedy the trouble if possible. 
A little manure or a mulch applied in the fall will stimulate the 
growth next year. 

Lawns. — Over the extensive area in which blue-grass thrives, 
good lawns are easily produced. Kentucky blue-grass is one of the 
best lawn grasses of the humid states. It thrives particularly well 
in regions where there is plenty of limestone, and in those regions 
will grow much farther south than elsewhere. 




Fig. 277. — Even a few annual plants, such as castor beans, vines and flowers, well 
placed, hide the naked foundations and give a pleasing background for the lawn. Note 
how well the foundation is hidden by plants. 

Other good lawn grasses are timothy, meadow fescue, red top 
and the rye grasses. All of these need to be trimmed more closely 
or may be used better on large plantations where mowing is to be 
done by the field machines. 

White clover is a low, creeping clover which mixes well with 
blue grass and other lawn grasses. It is easily grown in all of the 
regions where the rainfall is not too limited. It prefers some lime 
in the soil. 

Bermuda grass is one of the best lawn grasses in use in the Gulf 
states and other states near them if there is little lime in the soil. 
It makes a dense carpet if kept trimmed closely, and is one of the 



PRINCIPLES IN THE CARE OF LAWNS 



377 



most beautiful covers for any lawn where it will thrive. It may be 
grown as far north as the Ohio river. The leaves and stems do not 
remain over winter in regions where freezing is severe. The new 
growth has to come from the roots each spring, and the lawn has a 
dead appearance for several months each year. 

For dry regions of the West smooth bromegrass is one of the 
best lawn grasses. It will become more dense and produce a better 
carpet after a few year's growth. The stems shooting up to 
bear seed should be kept trimmed off if the best effects are to be 
obtained. 




Fig. 



27S. — A city garden -i :i imw to beautify barren spots between tenements. 
(K. I. State College, Ext. Dept.) 



Starting Lawn Grass. — If the seed method is to be followed 
always sow the seed on a well prepared seed bed at that season of 
the year when the rainfall is heaviest. In some regions this is in 
February or March, while in others it may be in September or 
late fall. If the winter is very severe early spring is preferred to 
late fall, because the young grass should be allowed to make enough 
root growth to prevent being killed by freezing. In regions with 
light winters where the soil does not freeze many inches deep the 
fall seeding of lawns is recommended. 

Principles in the Care of Lawns. — It is easier to care for a lawn 
that is not broken up by trees or scattered shrubs. The area to be 



378 



BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 



mowed should be largely uninterrupted by such plants. It is more 
difficult to mow all around a flower bed or shrub cluster than it is to 
mow along one side only. 

Frequent mowings are less difficult than few mowings. If lawn 
mowers are used the work is measured by the height rather than by 
the number of tmies the lawn is gone over. Of course this is not 
the case when field mowers are used. These are suitable only for 
large lawns. 

Never allow the seed stems of grasses to shoot up. This takes 
away the life of the grass. All good lawn grasses have other means 




Fig. 279. — The vegetable garden whether at home or at school may be bordered with annual 
and perennial flowers. (R. I. State College, Ext. Dept.) 

of spreadmg than by seed. These other methods should be encour- 
aged, and the seed method should be discouraged. 

Another objection to neglecting the lawn is the presence of 
weeds. These are always more abundant on neglected lawns. 
Closely trimmed lawns are less weedy. Frequent cutting is hard on 
the weeds but good for the grass. 

Flower Planting: — One of the most important factors in beauti- 
fying the home grounds is the liberal use of flowers. Do not make 
small beds of flowers. Let them be planted in borders or wide 
belts along the edge of the grounds. There is no objection to having 
some walks run through them but they should not be interrupted or 
surrounded with lawn grass. They are less thrifty, the lawn is 



A CONTINUOUS SHOW OF FLOWERS 



379 



not so easily cared for, and the effect is less beautiful. Large beds 
are sometimes used near the main walks. A better plan is to have 
borders of flowers along these walks. Let the borders be wide 
enough to be really interesting all season. 

A good plan in the planting of flowers is to place them at the foot 
of the buildings. At each side of the steps leading to the porch 
and in similar places would be good. Between walks and buildings 
is often a favorite spot for beautiful flowers. 

Choice of Annuals and Perennials. — There are so many beautiful 
annual flowers that we should not omit planting them each year. 
Beds of zinnias, aster, the splendid salvia, marigold, verbena. 






















Fig. 280. — Annual flowering plants may be grown with much pleasure and profit by 
both girls and boys in the school and home gardens — a bed of Portulaccas. (R. I. State 
College, Ext. Dept.) 

dwarf nasturtium, annual phlox, poppy, gaillardia, calliopsis, 
cosmos, golden Bartonia are always admired. A bed of portulaccas 
is shown in figure 280. 

Perennial flowers save much replanting, and the effect is more 
permanent. It is well to plant so that the show of blossoms will 
be pleasing at all times during the growing season. 

A Continuous Show of Flowers. — Let there be a continuous show 
of flowers as much of the year as possible. Perennials which 
blossom early, such as violets and pansies may be followed by 
annuals or perennials which blossom during mid-summer. The 
late flowering plants, such as asters, zinnias, chrysanthemums 
dahlias, cannas, should be included in the planting list. 



380 



BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 



Bulbs. — For winter and early spring blossoms we should make 
liberal use of jonquils, narcissus, tulips, hyacinths, etc. 

Flowering Tables. — The accompanying flower tables give the 
time of flowering for a number of popular flowers. These will aid 
greatly in making selections for the flower beds and borders. Color 
effects should also be studied in this connection. Let color, time, 
height and other elements be considered m choosing the flowers to 
be planted. 

Cultural Directions. — Special directions for the culture of each 
of the flowers are usually given on seed packages and in the garden 
catalogs published by seedsmen. Send for several catalogs and 
study them closely. The directions given for culture and manage- 
ment are usually quite reliable. 

Perennial Flowers from Seeds. — Many perennial flowering 
herbaceous plants may be quickly grown from seeds. If the seed 
bed is planted in August and the young seedlings are soon trans- 
planted and well watered, nourished during the first autumn, 
they may be expected to show some bloom the next season. They 
will become stronger and produce more flowers each year. 

Planting Table of Perennial Flowers 





Dis- 










Name of Flower 


tance 

to 
Trans- 
plant 
Feet 


Height 

of Plants 

Feet 


Color of Flowers 


Blooming 
Season 


Adapted foi 


Achillea 


1 


2 


White 


June to Aug. 


Borders, cut- 
flowers 


Baby's breath 


1 


Uto2 


White 


.July to Aug. 


Bouquets 


Blanket flower 


1 


2 


Reddish -brown 


June to frost 


Cut-flowers 


Campion 


1 


3 


Orange, scarlet 


June to Sept. 


Borders 


(Lychnis) 












Columbine 


1 


2 Ho 3 


White, blue, 
yellow 


Jime to Aug. 


Beds, c u t - 
flowers 


Coreopsis 


1.; 


1 to 2 


Yellow 


May to frost 


Cut-flowers 


Hollyhock 


2 


4 to 7 


AH coloi's 


July to frost 


Backgrounds 


Larkspur 


2 


2 to 5 


Blue shades 


June to Sept. 


Backgroimds 


Pinks 


] ,; 


ItolJ 


Pink, white, rod 


May to July 


Borders 


Poppies, Iceland 


1-9 


2 


All colors 


June, Oct. 


Borders 


Poppies, Oriental 


}-9 


2 


All colors 


June, July 


Borders 


Snapdragon 


1 


1 to 3 


Red, purple, 
wliite 


July to frost 


Borders 


Stokesia or corn- 


1 


n 


White and light 


July to Oct. 


Cut-flowers 


flower aster 






lavender 






Sweet William 


1 


l|to2 


All shades of 
red, white and 
variegated 


June to Aug. 


Beds, b o r - 
ders, cut- 
flowers 



ANNUAL FLOWERS 



381 



Prepare a small bed of rich sandy loam in a spot partially shaded 
Drill the seeds in rows a few inches apart. Cover very slightly by 
sifting soil over them and gently packmg. Water well. Transplant 
the seedlmgs soon after they form their second pau's of leaves. It 
may be well to shift them a second time to the distance indicated in 
the table. Protect them with a light mulch of strawy manure 
when the ground begins to freeze. 

Annual Flowers. — The accompanying table gives important 
points regarding some common annual flowers. These are useful 
for beds and borders. The seeds may be carefully sown in beds of 
rich sandy loam in hot beds, coldframes or in the open, later m the 
spring. The seedlings are nearly all improved by transplanting. 
Cover seeds by sifting soil over them to a depth of one-eighth to 
one-fourth inch. Water them often and protect them from drying 
winds, hot sun, and severe cold nights. The distances between 
plants at shifting time should be governed by the effects desired 
and by the heights of the plants. See also the planting table in 
this author's book "School and Home Gardening," Chapter XII. 

' Planting Table of Annual Flowers 



Name of flower 



Height 

of Blooming 

plant season 

inches) 



Color 



Best use 



Ageratum 

Alyssum 

Aster, dwarf 

Balsam 

Candytuft 

Cosmos 

Eschscholzia 

Marigold 

Orange daisy 

Petunia (creeping) 

Phlox (Drummond) 

Portulacca (creep- 
ing) 
Verbena (creeping) 
Zinnia 



5-18 

3-12 

6-12 
12-30 

6-12 

30-60 
12 

6-36 

12 
10-18 

4-12 

6 

8-10 
4-36 



July to frost 

End of June 

to frost 
Aug. to frost 
July to frost 

End of June 

to frost 
July to frost 
July to frost 

July to frost 

July to frost 
Aug. to frost 

July and Au- 
gust 
Aug. to frost 

Aug. to frost 
Aug. to frost 



White, blue, 

rose 
White 

All colors 
Pink, white, 

cream 
Assorted 

Many colors 
Yellow, white, 

red 
Yellow 

Orange 
White, blue, 

striped 
All colors 

Good assort- 
ment 
Several colors 
All colors 



Carpeting 

Borders 

Solid beds 
Borders 

Borders 

Background 
Ribbon beds 

Dwarf for borders; 

tall for beds 
Solid beds 
Carpeting 

Ribbon beds 

Carpeting 

Carpeting 
Dwarf for borders; 
tall for beds 



382 BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 

Other annual flowers are here Hsted in groups by their most 
common colors: 

White flowers: Dianthus, iberis, poppy, stocks. 

Yellow flowers: Mignonette, calendula, cacalia, coryopsis 
nasturtium, hibiscus, celosia. 

Blue flowers: Centaurea, lobelia, mimulus, ageratum. 

Red flowers: Adonis, agrostemma, cacalia, celosia, Clarkia, 
dianthus, gaillardia, stocks, saponaria, nasturtium. 

Many colors: Godetia, mirabilis, nigella, sweet peas, pansies. 

Foliage Plants. — Annuals with ornamental foliage are often 
used for bedding and border plantings. In some mstances these 
have no showy flowers, but their leaves are always beautiful. In 
this group may be mentioned, amarantus, centaurea, coleus, 
euphorbia, perilla, pyrethj-um, racinus (castor bean). 

CONTESTS, SCORING, AND JUDGING 

1. Scoring Home Grounds. — Make a score card for use in judging the 
home grounds of any region. Assign scoring vahies to each item. Include: 

(1) Plan of walks, roads, etc., with reference to surroundings, and 

buildings. 

(2) Plan of planting of shrubs. 

(3) Location of trees. 

(4) Choice of trees, shrubs, and vines. 

(5) Flower beds — ^arrangement. kinds, etc. 

(6) Paint or whitewa-sh on fences, buildings, etc. 

(7) Lawns — kinds, success, care. etc. 

(8) General effects. 

(9) Permanency of plantings and improvements. 

(10) Economy of improvements, maintenance, and care. 

2. Use the score card in judging home grounds in the neighborhood. This 
may be done "before" and "after" improvements have been made. 

3. Contests in improving home premises may be started. If possible 
premiums may be offered for first, second, and third best. Photographs should 
be taken before and after the contests. Committees or judges to decide the 
contest should be brought from outside the contest district. 

4. List of plants of aU kinds used in planting should be made. In the vine 
list indicate the method of cUmbing. In the shrubs indicate the height, special 
value, etc. Of the lawn grasses state which are best for sod formation. De- 
scribe the trees as to shade production, length of life, rapidity of growth, gen- 
eral shape, etc. 

5. Make plans for planting the house grounds and school grounds. Any 
school building should be beautified by the planting of .shrubs, flowers, vines 
and trees. Wliat should be used for your school grounds? See figures 267, 270, 
and 271. 

6. Use of Catalogs. — Make a collection of nursery catalogs of ornamentals. 
Make a list of evergreens that would suit your soil and conditions. Arrange 
a list of shrubs according to time of flowering, as early, medium, and late. 

7. Calculate the cost of buying all the vines, shrubs, evergreens, hedges, 
and shade trees which you need to beautify your home grounds. Then 
reduce the list, if possible, by arranging to secure some of these from your 
Oeighbors from the woods, and by propagation of some you now have. 



QOESTIONS 383 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why should a country home be beautified'' 

2. Of what educational value is this to young people? 

3. WTiat are the financial benefits? 

4. Give some suggestions for plans in planting the home grounds. 

5. Discuss the plantmg to suit buildmgs. 

6. What is meant by grouping or massing trees and shrubs? 

7. Give a list of trees suitable for use in your region. 

8. What wild shrubs in your region should be used in planting the home 

grounds? 

9. Mention good plants for hedges in your region. 

10. Mention good perennial vines and tell the kinds of supports required for 

each. 

11. Same for annual vines. 

12. What lawn grasses are best for your region? 

13. What are the best seasons for sowing grass seeds, and for sodding slopes? 

14. Give principles in the case of lawns. 

15. Give suggestions regarding the choice and planting of tiowers. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 750, Roses for the Home; 814 
Bermuda Grass; 1169, Shade Tree Insects; 1171, Growing Annual Flowering 
Plants; 1178, Tree Surgery; 1209, Planting and Care of Street Trees. 

Landscape Gardenings, Waugh, John Wylie & Son; Rural Improvement, 
Waugh, Orange Judd Co. 



CHAPTER XXX 
ATTRACTING BIRDS 

The gardener and the orchardist should always be interested in 
attracting birds which destroy insects. It is estimated that the loss 
to agriculture due to insects is about three billion dollars annually 
in this country alone. Birds will aid materially in keeping insects 
in control. The gardener or fruit grower who makes a special effort 
to attract birds will find his efforts abundantly rewarded. 

The man with a cherry orchard is apt to think that birds do 
more harm than good. The robin, for example, that destroys 
many insec'ts will also eat cherries and some other fruits. The 
damage, compared with the benefit, is only slight; allow the birds 
to take a little compensation for the good they do. Frequently the 
fruit-eating birds are in need of water. They often bite fruit merely 
for a little juice, because there is no water supply available to them. 

There are a number of ways of attracting birds and making 
them feel at home on your grounds. These will be discussed in 
this chapter. 

Fruit-Bearing Shrubs. — Grow shrubs and trees that bear seeds 
and fruits which birds love. Elderberry, blackberry, Japanese 
barberry, black haw, thornapple (hawthorn), wild cherries, mul- 
berry, wild grapes and even the low buckbush all bear fruits which 
will aid in makmg the birds friendly on your place. Some of these 
keep their fruit on during the winter and will help feed our winter 
friends while they are hunting for egg clusters and pupae of some of 
the worst forms of insects. Let these trees, shrubs and vines be 
used for ornamentmg the home grounds, and they will aid materi- 
ally in protecting your main fruit plantation from attacks of birds 
themselves. Best of all this will keep the birds near your home, 
and if they make their homes near by they are certain to destroy 
millions of insects, particularly during the nesting season. They 
like to feed their young chiefly upon insect life. 

Building Nests. — A popular way of attracting birds is to build 
bird boxes and other forms of houses in which they may nest. 
Ingenious devices have been constructed and popularly illustrated 
in bulletins, insect books, and many periodicals. They are some- 
times made of gourds hollowed out for the purpose. Tin cans 
laid on the side and fastened to a post may attract some friendly 
birds. Have a perch in front for the parent birds to rest upon. 
Wooden boxes may be so constructed as to be very attractive and 
384 



PROTECTION AGAINST CATS 



385 



homelike for wild bird life. Put these nests on suitable supports 
where the parent birds will feel safe from harm. Paint them some 
natural color to match the bark of trees or green foliage. 

Protection against Cats. — Among the worst enemies of birds are 
common house cats, which often run wild and prey upon birds' 
nests during the summer season. They are frequently found rest- 
ing in trees to prey upon the parent birds or upon young birds 
which are just learning to fly. Their worst trick is to rob the nests 
after the young have hatched. 

Much protection can be given the nests by wide bands of sticky 
fly paper placed around trunks of trees in which the nests are built 



Fig. 281. 



Fig. 282. 




Fig. 281. — Metal tree guards will aid in keeping squirrels and cats from bird nests. Sticky 

fly paper (at left) may be fastened around the tree or nest pole. (U.S.D.A.) 
Fig. 282. — Such a good tray may be placed where you may reach it from a box. (U.S.D.A.) 

(Fig. 281). Cats dislike to be caught in fly paper and will never 
attempt to climb a tree where they were once caught. Put wide 
metal collars around poles where blue birds or others are making 
their home. The artificial nests may be put on poles thus protected 
from the ascent of cats. When birds feel themselves secure from 
being robbed they grow more friendly month by month or year by 
year. Frequenth^ the best remedy is to kill the cats. When cats 
are busy hunting bu'ds' nests they seldom care to kill mice and 
rats. The lazy house cat often spends much of the night in preying 
upon birds in trees, and then sleeps during the day in your home. 
25 



386 



ATTRACTING BIRDS 



Damage by Dogs. — Many birds which nest upon the ground or 
near the ground, such as quails, meadow larks, field sparrows and 
others have found their nests of eggs or young destroyed by dogs. 
A single bird dog with the strong sense of smell can find all the 
nests on a farm though there be scores of them, and is sometunes 
known to destroy them all in an hour's time. Quails, for example, 
are the best enemies of potato beetles. A flock of quails will 
protect the patch by eating the pests early in the season before 



Fig. 284. 



Fig. 28.3 




Fiv^;. 28.3. — A cocoanut shell hung in a wire mesh mav serve either as a nest or as a dining 

room. (U.S.D.A.") 
Fig. 284. — A feed shelf under a window is handy for the feeder and will bring the birds under 
the observation of children. (U.S.D.A.) 

they multiply. The protection of such a flock to the particular 
farm is of immense value. The dog which destroys the nests allows 
the insects to continue their work, and the farmer must fight the 
insect enemies as best he can while he is petting and feeding his 
clog. It has been said that it costs as much to feed a clog as it does 
to feed a pig. The same table waste or other feed which one gives 
the dogs could be used for pigs, and thus increase the supply of 
human food. 



WATERING THE BIRDS 



387 



Beware of dogs destroying the young and eggs of birds. Dogs 
which steal hen eggs often get the first lesson by stealing eggs from 
bu'ds' nests. A dog with such bad training should be destroyed. 

Feeding Birds in Winter Time. — When snow covers the ground 
or when the weather is otherwise harmful to birds, food of some 
kind should be placed where the winter birds can obtain it. (Figs. 
282 and 283). Seeds may be placed on top of walls or on the Limbs 




Fig. 



285. — The barn swallow is found on almost every farm. Because it catches so many 
insects it ought to be encouraged and protected, ^U. S. Biological Survey.) 



of trees where they will find them. Use also rinds of meat cut fine, 
crumbs, scraps from the table, etc. Birds quickly become so 
friendly during the winter season that they will come to the win- 
dow sill (Fig. 284) and beg for such food as you will give them. 

Watering the Birds. — During hot, dry weather a supply of 
water where birds can find it should be kept in the shade of trees or 
other convenient place. It has been frequently noticed that birds 



388 



ATTRACTING BIRDS 



which have access to streams of water seldom attack cherries or 
other fruits. 

If the birds are suffering for water can they be blamed for biting 
the fruit for the juice they so much crave? Remember, they are 
destroymg millions of insects and savmg your crop. Then why 
not give them a supply of water which costs you so little effort? 
A large basin or trough kept filled for this purpose would be an 
advantage. Have suitable places for the birds to alight while 
drinking. 




Fig. 286.- 



-The flicker and other wood peckers are insect-eating birds and should be pro- 
tected. (U.S. Biological Survey.) 



If you keep honey bees the same watering place required by the 
bees will supply the birds. Even watering places for poultry will 
supply the birds if there is enough seclusion about them to encour- 
age the birds to venture near. 

BIRD STUDIES, EXERCISES, AND CONTESTS 

1. Knowing the Birds. — ^Learn to know the common birds by sight, song, 
flight, etc. (Figs. 285 and 286.) 

2. Winter birds should be studied and listed in the winter. As others 
come in the spring add them to the list with dates of arrival. (Fig. 287). 



BIRD STUDIES 



389 



3. Nest boxes of several types should be made and put up in suitable 
places. See which kinds are used most eagerly by birds. 

4. Fruit-bearing shrubs and trees that are wild in the region, should be 
listed and studied. Mark their locations and transplant them to the home 
grounds during the dormant season. 

5. Protect nests against cats in the different ways suggested. Study the 
results. Cats may be killed; then note the renewed friendship of the birds. 

6. Feed and water the birds and note how much tamer they become. 

7. Contests in attracting birds may be started. Let all the known methods 
be used as well as possible. Success may be judged by results. 




Fia. 287. — The house wren is one of the most friendly birds, and is easily attracted. Make 
a nest box with a hole the size of a silver twenty-five cent piece. This will let the wrens in, 
but keep the hated English sparrow out. (U. S. Biological Survey.) 



QUESTIONS 

1. T\Tiat are the chief reasons for attracting birds? 

2. WTiat fruit-bearing shrubs will aid in attracting birds? 

3. What forms of bird boxes have you seen put up for birds? Why should 

they be used? 

4. Give suggestions for protection against cats. 

5. How are dogs injurious to birds? How may this be prevented? 

6. Discuss the feeding of birds in winter. 

7. Under what conditions should water be provided for birds? How is this 

done? 

8. Can you give other methods for attracting birds? 

9. What enemies of birds have you ever seen? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 493, English Sparrow as a Pest; 
609, Bird Houses; 630, Common Useful Birds; 497, Some Common Game. 
Aquatic and Rapacious Birds in Relation to Man; 506, Food of Some Birds of 
Forest, Farm and Garden; 621, How to Attract Birds in Northeastern United 
States; 755, Common Birds of Southeastern United States; 760, How to Attract 
Birds in Northwestern United States; 770, Canaries; 912, How to Attract 
Birds in East Central States; 1102, The Crow. 

Insect Enemies and Bird Friends, Washburn, J. B. Lippincott Company. 



APPENDIX 



HORTICULTURAL WORKS FOR SCHOOL LIBRARIES 

Productive Vegetable Growing, Lloyd, J. B. Lippincott Company, 

School and House Gardening, Davis, J. B. Lippincott Company. 

Garden Farming, Corbett, Ginn & Company. 

Vegetable Gardening, Watts, Orange Judd Company. 

Productive Plant Husbandry, Davis, J. B. Lippincott Company. 

Nursery Manual, Bailey, Macmillan Company. 

Principles of Floriculture, White, Macmillan Company. 

Farm and Garden Rule Book, Bailey, Macmillan Company. 

Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, (6 vols.) Macmillan Company. 

Productive Orcharding, Sears, J. B. Lippincott Company. 

Principles of Fruit Growing, Bailey, Macmillan Company. 

Injurious Diseases and Useful Birds, Washburn, J. B. Lippincott Co> 

Pruning Book, Bailey, Macmillan Company. 

American Apple Orchard, Waugh, Orange Judd Company. 

Systematic Pomology, Waugh, Orange Judd Company. 

Plums and Plum Culture, Waugh, Orange Judd Company. 

Productive Small Fruit Culture, Sears, J. B. Lippincott Company. 

Productive Plant Husbandry, Davis, J. B. Lippincott Company. 

USUAL DISTANCES APART FOR PLANTING VEGETABLES 



Vegetables 



Rows, 


Distance in 


feet apart 


rows, feet 


3-4 


1-2 


2-4 


1 


li-2 


drills 


li-2 


thin drills 


2-2^ 


1^-2 


3 


3 


n-2 


drills 


2-2i 


n-2 


3-3i 


1-2 


3-4 


i-1 


4-6 


4-6 


3 


3 


1-2 


thin drills 


H 


h 


li-2 


drills 


1-2 


drills 


1-3 


drills 


2h 


n 


2^-3 


i-n 


1-n 


drills 


4 


2-4 


n-2 


drills 


1-lh 


driUs 


6-8 


6-8 


3-4 


2 


U-2 


drills 


3-4 


3-4 



Plants 
per acre 



Asparagus 

Beans, bush and pole 

Beet, early 

Beet, stock, sugar. . . . 

Cabbage, early 

Cabbage, late 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Corn, sweet 

Celery 

Cucumber and melons 

Eggplant 

Lettuce, curly 

Lettuce, head 

Onion 

Parsley 

Peas 

Pepper 

Potato 

Radish 

Rhubarb 

Salsify 

Spinach 

Squash and pumpkin 

Sweet potato 

Turnip 

Tomato 



8712-14520 

4840 

8712-14520 
10890-29040 

4840 

58080 

11616 
2722-5445 

5445-7260 

2722-4840 



390 



APPENDIX 391 



VARIETIES OF VEGETABLES FOR GARDEN PLANTING. 

Asparagus, Palmetto, Columbia White, Colossal. 

Beans, Bush Bountiful (early), Valentine, Refugee (extra early). 

Beans, Lima Fordhook, Ford's Mammoth Podded. (See catalogs) . 

Beans, Pole Kentucky Wonder, Crease Back. (See catalogs) . 

Beets Basano (early). Crimson Globe. 

Broccoli Early White Cape. 

Brussels Sprouts . . . Improved Half Dwarf. 

Cabbage Charleston Wakefield (early), Succession (mid-season), 

Late Flat Dutch. 

Cauliflower Early Snowball, Veitch's Autumn Giant. 

Carrots Half Long Stump Rooted, Half -Long Danvers. 

Celery Golden Self Blanching (early). Giant Pascal (late) . 

Corn Adam's Early Dwarf, StoweU's Evergreen (sweet), 

Country Gentleman (sweet). 

CoUards Georgia. 

Cress Curled. 

Cucumbers Im proved White Spine, Emerald, Green Prolific Pickling. 

Egg Plant Ne w York Purple, Black Beauty, Florida High Bush. 

Endive Green Curled. 

Kale Early Curled Siberian. 

Lettuce Big Boston (early), Improved Hanson, Wood's Early 

Cabbage, Giant Crystal Head (late). 

Mustard Giant Southern Curled, Ostrich Plume. 

Musk Melon Extra Early Hanover, Netted Gem, Rocky Ford, Perfec- 
tion Melon. 

Okra Clemson, Long WTiite Velvet. 

Onion Yellow Globe Danvers, Prize Taker, Extra Early White 

Pearl, Yellow MultipHer (fall). 

Peas, Garden Philadelphia Extra Early, Horsford's Market Garden 

(medium), Telephone (late). 

Pepper, Sweet Chinese Giant, Ruby King. 

Pepper, Hot Long Red Cayenne. 

Parsley Moss Curled. 

Parsnip Hollow Crown. 

Potatoes, Irish Irish Cobbler, Carman No. 3, Early Triumph (p. 293). 

Potatoes, Sweet. . . .Nancy Hall, Georgia, Yellow Jersey, Triumph. 

Pumpkin Sugar, Pie, Negro. 

Radish Early White Tipped Scarlet, French Breakfast, Mam- 
moth, Extra Early Scarlet. 

Salsify Mammoth Sandwich Island. 

Spinach Long Standing. 

Squash White Bush, Boston Marrow, Giant Summer Crookneck, 

Cushaw, Winter Hubbard. 

Tomatoes EarUana, Acme, Stone, Ponderosa. (See next page) . 

Turnip Extra Early Purple Top, Improved Red Top Globe, Seven 

Top (for greens). Yellow Aberdeen, Ruta Baga. 

Water Melon Georgia Rattle Snake, Florida Favorite, Tom Watson, 

Kolb Gem (good shipper). 



392 



APPENDIX 



ESTIMATED YIELDS OF TOMATOES 

The Ohio Station gives the following yields in tons per acre of twenty- 
one different varieties of tomatoes raised for canning. 



Variety 



1915 



Bloomsdale 

Bonny Best 

Brandywine 

Britons Best 

Cumberland Red . 
Delaware Beauty. 

Early Jewell 

Everlarge 

Greater Baltimore 
Improved Stone . . 

John Baer 

Landreth 

Matchless 

My Maryland 

No Substitute . . . . 

Prosperity 

Red Rock 

Red Sunrise 

Stone 

San Jos6 Canner . , 
Ten Ton 



Medium 
Medium 

Late 
Medium 

Late 

Late 
Medium 

Late 
Medium 

Late 
Medium 
Medium 

Late 

Late 

Late 
Medium 

Late 
Medium 

Late 

Late 

Late 



5.9 
2.7 
5.0 
2.2 
2.0 



3.8 
3.4' 



8.0 
2.5 
2.7 
3.6 
6.2 
3.8 



3.2 
.6 

5.5 



11.2 

7.9 
15.9 

7.2 
10.3 



9.2 
9.0 
8.5 



14.6 

6.7 

11.1 

15.2 

15.2 

7.8 

17.0 

9.4 

13.6 

12.1 



18.9 
8.2 
7.3 

12.3 
3.7 
3.9 

12.7 
9.6 
6.6 
6.0 

12.8 
7.8 
4.3 
4.6 
7.2 

10.8 
4.8 

10.1 
3.2 
6.6 
7.8 



18.1 
8.1 
5.9 

11.0 
4.2 
5.4 

12.7 
7.5 
7.8 
5.9 

12.8 

10.1 
4.5 
6.1 
8.6 

10.7 
5.4 

13.5 
5.2 
6.9 
8.4 



YIELDS OF STAKED TOMATOES AT WOOSTER 

Twelve varieties of tomatoes grown by the Ohio Station at Wooster were 
staked as in home gardens. The total yield in pounds of fruit per plant for 
three years, were recorded in the following table. 



Variety 


Season 


Size of 
fruit 


Yield per plant (pounds) 


1914 


1915 


1910 


Average 




Late 
Early 
Late 
Very early 
Late 
Medium 
Early 
Late 
Early 
Early 
Early 
Late 


Larg- 
Medium 

Large 
Medium 

Large 
Medium 
Medium 

Large 
Medium 
Medium 

Small 

Large 


4.1 
7.1 
4.3 
4.1 
3.9 
5.9 
6.1 
5.3 
5.4 
4.9 
6.2 
4.4 


5.3 
3.3 
4.0 
5.0 
4.4 
5.6 
4.9 
5.2 
5.5 
5.4 
6.7 
5.5 


4.8 
4.0 
3.0 
4.9 
3.7 
3.0 
4.5 
2.7 
3.1 
3.7 
4.6 
4.1 


4.7 




4.8 


Duke of York 


3.7 


Earliana 


4.6 


Emperor 


4.0 


Hummer 


4.8 


John Baer 


5.1 


Magnus 


4.4 


Marketeer 


4.6 


Noltes 


4.6 


Peerless 


5.8 


Red Rock 


4.6 







APPENDIX 



393 



YIELDS OF POTATOES UNDER GARDEN CONDITIONS 

The Ohio Station gives the following classification and yield of the different 
varieties of Irish potatoes. The yields are for an average of two 3'ears, counting 
only the marketable potatoes. 



Group and type 



I— Cobbler. 



II — -Triumph. 



Ill — ^Early Michigan . . 
IV— Rose 

V— Early Ohio 

VI— Hebron 

VII— Burbank 

VIII-Green Mountain 



IX— Rural . 



Varieties 



f Early Petoskey 

I Eureka Extra Early 

J Irish Cobbler (Ohio seed) 

1 Irish Cobbler (Second crop seed) 

Flour Ball 

[Potentate 

/Bliss Triumph 

\Manistee 



/Early Johnson . 
\Early Puritan . 

Early Rose . . . 
Livingston .... 

Maxima 

Norther 

^Rose 



[Early Ohio 

\Ohio Junior 

Crown Jewell . . . 
Early Bovee . . . , 
Early Harvest . . 

Golden Russet . . 

Longfellow 

Money Maker . . 
New Wonderful . 



f American Giant 

iGoldCoin 

j Norcross 

■! Snow 

Twentieth Century . . . . 

I Uncle Sam 

[Woodbury White Rose . 

Carman No. 3 

Dearborn 

Late Petoskey 

Noxall 

Ohio Wonder 

Orphans 

Prosperity 

Russet, Dibble's 

Scotch Rural 

Sir Walter Raleigh 



2-year average 
yield of mar- 
ketable tubeis 
per acre 



Bushels 

161.0 
71.9 
135.6 
222.1 
189.0 
122.3 

204.0 
225.8 

108.7 
103.0 

83.1 
287.1 
190.4 
213.3 
196.4 

117.7 
80.8 

98.5 
229.1 
230.2 

94.3 
143.5 
140.4 
103.9 

108.0 
148.0 
111.8 
157.1 
176.7 
129.9 
185.2 

167.6 
230.8 
173.7 
131.9 
164.6 
146.5 
155.9 
269.9 
129.0 
141.1 



394 



APPENDIX 



LOSSES IN CROP REMOVALS 

In the following table the amounts and commercial values of the three 
limiting elements removed per acre by several important vegetable and farm 
crops are presented. (From Illinois Station.) 



Fertililij Removed per Acre by Important Vegetables and Farm Crops ^ 




Estimated 
yield 


Plant food removed 


Value of 


Crop 


Nitrogen 


Phosphorus 


Potassium 


fertility 
removed 2 


Potato 

Sweet potato .... 

Turnip 

Carrot 

Parsnip. 

Onion 

Lettuce 

Asparagus 

Cabbage 

Tomato 

Cucumber 

Clorn 


1.50 bu. 
200 " 
800 " 
500 " 
600 " 
600 " 
10000 lbs. 
3600 " 
12 tons 
.500 bu. 
500 " 
100 " 
50 " 
75 " 


lbs. 
.30.6 
24.0 
79.2 
55.0 

160.0 
92.3 
23.0 
11.5 
72.0 
48.0 
40.0 

100.0 
71.0 
49.5 


lbs. 

6.3 

3.5 

13.2 

12.5 

24.0 

20.6 

3.0 

1.4 

12.0 

6.6 

12.5 

17.0 

12.0 

8 3 


lbs. 
43.2 
30.7 

105.0 
62.5 

135.0 
72.2 
30.1 
3.6 
86.4 
67.2 
50.0 
19.0 
13.0 
12.0 


$9.,34 

6.99 

23.50 

15.00 

42.90 

24.85 

6.71 

2.66 

20.78 

14.29 

12.25 

22.84 


Wheat 

Oats 


16.18 
11.45 



1 Compiled chiefly after Wolf and Goessman. 

2 In computing the values 1915 prices are used; 20 cents per pound has been allowed for 
the nitrogen, 10 cents for the phosphorus, and 6 cents for the potassium. These are the 
approximate prices prevailing at present for three elements in nitrate of soda, steamed bone 
meal, and potassium sulfate. 



SOURCES OF PLANT FOOD 

The following tables are taken from Illinois Station Circular 182. 

Table 1 . — Dry Matter and Nitrogen in Groivth per Acre: (Delaivare Experiments) 
{Expressed in pounds) 



Legume 



Soybeans. . . 
Cowpeas — 
Hairy vetch 



Dry matter 



In tops 



6790 
3718 
3064 



In roots 



756 
310 
600 



Nitrogen 



In tops and roots 



140.2 

69.5 

121.2 



Table 2. — -Dry Matter and Nitrogen in Growth per Acre: (Cornell Experiments) 
(Expressed in pounds) 



Legume 


Dry matter 


Nitrogen 


In tops 


In roots 


In tops and roots 


Hairy vetch 

Cowpeas 


6824 
2622 


567 
4.54 


256.1 
52.6 



APPENDIX 



395 



Table 3. — Important Commercial Forms of Nitrogen. 





Pounds nitrogen' 
per ton 


Cost Cost per 
per ton pound 


Nitrate of soda 


310 
280 
400 


$60.00 

54.50 
7.^.00 


$ .193 


Dried blood 


194 


Sulfate of ammonia 


.1S7 






'The amount of nitrogen varies, of course, with the grade. 

Table //.. — Important Forms of Phosphorus. 



Acid phosphate 

Steamed bone meal . 
Rock phosphate . . . . 



Pounds phosphorus 
per ton 



125 
250 
250 



Cost per ton 



$15.00 

25.00 

7.00 



Approximate cost 
per pound 



.12 
.10 
.03 



Table 5. — Important Forms of Potassium 





Pounds potassium 
per ton 


Cost per ton 


Cost per pound 


Muriate of potash ... . 


850 
850 
200 
100 


$50.00 

55.00 

13.00 

7.00 


$ .06 


Sulfate of potasii 

Kainit 

Wood ashes 


.065 
.065 
.07 



COST OF A YOUNG PEACH ORCHARD 

The following table shows a summarj' of the cost and income from a fifteen- 
acre orchard at Wooster, Ohio, for each of the fii'st six j^ears, when the trees 
had reached their best paying age. (Ohio Station). 

Summary for the First Six Years of a Peach Orchard — 15 Acres 



Year. 


Crop. 


Total 
income. 


Total 
cost. 


Income 
per acre. 


Cost 
per acre. 


Total 
loss. 


Total 
profit. 


1907 .... 
1908 


Corn . . . 


$509.50 


$415.06 
225.25 
204.60 

238.28 
773.03 

832.84 


$33.96 

4.33 

'170.75 
194.74 


$27.67 
15.00 
13.64 
15.88 
51.52 
55.52 


$225.25' 
139.60 
238.28 


$94.44 


1909 




65.00 




1910 






1911.... 
1912. ... 


Peach . . 
Peach . . 


2,561.25 
2,920.99 


1,788.22 
2,088.15 


Totals. 




$6,056.74 


$2,689.06 


$403.78 


$179.23 


$803.13 


$3,970.81 







Net profit on field for six years $3,367.68 

Average annual profit 561.28 

Average annual profit per acre 37.41 

Total yield of peaches 4,192 bu. 

Average price obtained per bushel 1.31 

Total cost for six years, excluding cost of corn crop and deducting 

rebate from nursery company 2,395.08 

Average cost per bushel as obtained from totnl cost .57 

Average net profit per bushel .74 



396 



APPENDIX 



NUMBER OF SHRUBS OR PLANTS FOR AN ACRE 



Distance 


No. of 


Distance 


No. of 




Distance 


No. of 


apart 


Plants 


apart 


Plants 




apart 


Plants 


3 x3 inches 


696,960 


4x4 feet 


2,722 


13 


xl3 feet 


257 


4 x4 


392,040 


43^x 4^ " 


2,151 


14 


xl4 


222 


6 x6 


174,240 


5x1 


8,712 


15 


xl5 " 


193 


9 x9 


77,440 


5x2 


4,356 


16 


xl6 " 


170 


1 xl foot 


43,560 


5x3 " 


2,904 


163^x163^ " 


160 


1^x11^ feet 


19,360 


5x4 " 


2,178 


17 


xl7 " 


150 


2 xl " 


21,780 


5x5 


1,742 


18 


xl8 


134 


2 x2 " 


10,890 


5Mx 5K " 


1,417 


19 


xl9 " 


120 


23^x23^ " 


6,960 


6x6 


1,210 


20 


x20 " 


108 


3 xl " 


14,520 


6Hx 63^ " 


1,031 


25 


x25 


69 


3 x2 " 


7,260 


7x7 " 


881 


30 


x30 " 


48 


3 x3 " 


4,840 


8x8 " 


680 


33 


x33 


40 


33^x33^ " 


3,555 


9x9 " 


537 


40 


x40 


27 


4 xl " 


10,890 


10 xlO 


435 


50 


x50 " 


17 


4 x2 " 


5,445 


11 xll 


360 


60 


x60 


12 


4 x3 " 


3,630 


12 xl2 


302 


66 


x66 " 


10 



SUITABLE DISTANCES FOR PLANTING 

Apples — Standard 25 to 40 feet apart each way 

Dwarf [bushes] 10 " 

Pears — Standard 16 to 20 " " 

Dwarf 10 " 

Cherries— Standard IS to 20 " 

Dukes & Morrellos 16 to 18 " 

Plums— Standard 16 to 20 " 

Peaches 16 to IS " 

Apricots 16 to 18 " " 

Nectarines 16 to 18 " " 

Quinces 10 to 12 " " 

Currants 3 to 4 " 

Gooseberries 3 to 4 " " 

Raspberries 3 to 5 " " 

Blackberries 6 to 7 || || 

Grapes 8 to 12 

To estimate the number of plants required for an acre, at any- 
given distance, multiply the distance between the rows by the distance 
between the plants, which will give the numlser of square feet allotted 
to each plant, and divide the number of square feet in an acre [43,560] 
by this number. The quotient will be the number of plants required. 



APPENDIX 



397 



HOW TO MAKE LIME-SULFUR AND USE HYDROMETER 

How to Use the Hydrometer. — Nearly fill the glass cylinder with the con- 
centrated material. Lower the hydrometer (Fig. 216) into it and note the read- 
ing at the surface of tlie solution. Record this number on the vessel. 

For the proper dilution refer to the following table. 





iieter reads 


Winter spray 


Summer spray 


When hydror 










Use the following amounts 


Use the following amounts 






of lime-sulfur to make 


of lime-sulfur to make 






50 gallons of spray for 


50 gallons of spray for 
summer sprays on apples, 
pears or cherries. 
Should test about 


Specific 


Degrees 


scale control. 

Should test about 

5 degrees Bauni6 


gravity 


Baum6 




1 degree Baum6 


1.318 


35 


5 gal. 1 qt. 


1 gal. 1 pt. 


1.306 


34 


5 gal. 2 qt. 


Igal. VApt. 


1.295 


33 


5 gal. 3 qt. 


1 gal. 1 qt. 


1.283 


32 


6 gal. 


1 gal. 1 qt. M pt. 


1.272 


31 


6 gal. 1 qt. 


1 gal. 1 qt. 1 pt. 


1.261 


30 


6 gal. 3 qt. 


1 gal. 1 qt. IH pt. 


1.250 


29 


7 gal. 


1 gal. 2 qt. 


1.239 


•28 


7 gal. 1 qt. 


1 gal. 2 qt. H pt. 


1.229 


27 


7 gal. 3 qt. 


1 gal. 2 qt. 13^ pt. 


1.218 


26 


8 gal. 1 qt. 


1 gal. 3 qt. 


1.208 


25 


8 gal. 3 qt. 


1 gal. 3 qt. 1 pt. 


1.198 


24 


9 gal. 1 qu. 


2 gal. 


1.188 


23 


9 gal. 3 qt. 


2 gal. 1 pt. 


1.179 


22 


10 gal. 2 qt. 


2 gal. 1 qt. 


1.169 


21 


11 gal. 1 qt. 


2 gal. Iqt. 11^ pt. 


1.160 


20 


12 gal. 


2 gal. 2 qt. 1 pt. 


1.151 


19 


12 gal. 3 qt. 


2 gal. 3 qt. H pt. 


1.142 


18 


13 gal. 3 qt. 


3 gal. 


1.133 


17 


14 gal. 2 qt. 


3 gal. 11^ pt. 


1.124 


16 


15 gal. 2 qt. 


3 gal. i qt. 1 pt. 



For those who may be interested in making their concentrated Hme-sulfur 
solution the following directions should be followed: Slake. forty pounds of 
high grade freshly burned lime in an iron kettle, then carefully sift in eighty 
pounds of flowers of sulfur, stir to make a uniform paste and add enough water 
to make fifty gallons of solution. Bring this to a boil and boil for one hour, 
taking care at all times to add enough water to keep the volume as near fifty 
gallons as possible. This material will boil over very easily unless it is stirred 
frequently. If it should get beyond control add some cold water suddenly and 
reduce the fire. 

This will make a concentrated solution which when cool should test 
between 24 degrees and 26 degrees Baume. Strain it and store in a good 
barrel. (Indiana Station.) 



398 



APPENDIX 



DILUTION TABLE FOR LIME-SULFUR SOLUTIONS. 

Commercial concentrated lime-sulfur testing 33 degrees should be used 
as a dormant spray at the rate of one gallon to eight of water, and as a summer 
spray at the rate of one gallon to forty of water. When using the weaker 
home-made solutions they must be diluted to a less degree to give the same 
strength. The amount of this dilution for any strength between 15 and 36 
degrees Beaume (Fig. 216) is given in the following dilution table. (West 
Virginia station.) 





Number of gallons of water to 


ine fxallon of lime-sulfur solution 


Reading on 






Beaum6 






hydrometer 


For San Jos6 scale. 
Dormant spraying only 


For summer spraying 


36 degrees 


9 


45 


35 




8M 


43^ 


34 




SH 


41^ 


33 ' 




8 


40 


32 ' 




7^ 


37 M 


31 ' 




7}i 


36^ 


30 ' 




&H 


34^ 


29 ' 




6^ 


3234 


28 ' 




6 


31 


27 ' 




5H 


291^ 


26 ' 




5H 


27H 


25 ' 




5 


26 


24 ' 




4^ 


24^ 


23 ' 




AH 


223/i 


22 ' 




3M 


2iyi 


21 ' 




3M 


19M 


20 ' 




3M 


18M 


19 ' 




3 


17 


18 ' 




2H 


16 


17 ' 




2H 


15 


16 ' 




2H 


14 


15 ' 




2 


12M 



APPENDIX 



399 



GUroE FOR BOX PACKING OF APPLES 

Apples are usually packed in boxes with the stems down, until the top 
layer is reached when they should be packed stem end up. When the cheek 
pack is used with the apples on their sides the core line may be parallel to the 
box side or diagonal to it. Apples are never packed crosswise of the box or with 
the core line at right angles to the box side. 

When the sizing and grading for box packing has been done and the fruit 
is ready to be packed, the following table will be found helpful in deciding what 
pack to use. The completed box should be stenciled on one end with (a) The 
name and address of the packer (b) The variety and grade of apples (c) The 
tier and number of contained fruits. (Indiana Station.) 



Approximate 

lateral 

circumference 

of apple 


Style of pack 


Number 
apples 
per box 


Layers and 

number in 

each 


Number in 

first and 

second 

rows 


Box 
marked 


A 12 inches 


Straight 3 


45 


3x15 


5-5 


3 tier 


B 


Straight 3 


54 


3x18 


6-6 


3 " 


C IVA " 


2-2 Diagonal 


56 


4x14 


4-3 


S'A " 


D 


Straight 3 


63 


3x21 


7-7 


3 " 


E 11 


2-2 Diagonal 


64 


4x16 


4-4 


3H " 


F 1034 " 


2-2 Diagonal 


72 


4x18 


5-4 


W2 " 


G 101/2 " 


2-2 Diagonal 


80 


4x20 


5-5 


W2 " 


H 10 


2-2 Diagonal 


88 


4x22 


6-5 


3^ " 


J 9% " 


2-2 Diagonal 


96 


4x24 


6-6 


3J^ " 


K 9H " 


2-2 Diagonal 


104 


4x26 


7-6 


3H tier 


L 91^ " 


3-2 Diagonal 


113 


3x23 
2x22 


5-4 


4K " 


M 9 


Straight 4 


96 


4x24 


6-6 


4 " 


N 


Straight 4 


112 


4x28 


7-7 


4 " 





3-2 Diagonal 


125 


5x25 


5-5 


i'A " 


Q 


3-2 Diagonal 


138 


3x28 
2x27 


6-5 


4K " 


R SH " 


4-4 Offset 


140 


5x28 




4M " 


S 8H " 


3-2 Diagonal 


150 


5x30 


6-6 


W2 " 


T 


3-2 Diagonal 


163 


3x33 
2x32 


7-6 


^A " 


U 8 " 


3-2 Diagonal 


175 


5x35 


7-7 


4K " 


W 


3-2 Diagonal 


188 


3 x38 
2x37 


8-7 


4^ " 


X 7^ " 


Straight 5 


200 


5x40 


8-8 


5 " 


Y 


Straight 5 


225 


5x45 


9-9 


5 " 



400 



APPENDIX 



QUALITY IN APPLES (OHIO AND OREGON STATIONS). 



1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 



Variety 



Arkansas 

Arkansas Black 

Astrachan 

Babbitt 

Baldwin 

Banana 

Benoni 

Blenheim 

Boiken 

Bough (sweet) 

Chenango 

Delicious 

Ensee 

Fall Pippin 

Garden Royal 

Golden Sweet 

Gravenstein 

Grimes 

Hubbardston 

Ingram 

Isham (sweet) 

Jefferis 

Jersey Sweet 

Jonathan 

King David 

Late Starwben / 

Lawver 

Lowell I Late August 

Mcintosh Early September 

Maiden Bluch Early September 



Season of use 



February-May 

April-June 

Early August 

December-March.. . . 
December-March. . . . 
December-February . 

Early August 

September-October. . 
December-February . 

Early August 

Late August 

December-January . . 

January-March 

Late September 

Early September. . . . 

March-August 

Late August 

October-March 

November-February . 

March-June 

Early October 

Early September. . . . 
Early September . . . . 
December-March. . . 

January— March 

Late August 

March-May 



Melon. 

Mother 

Moyer 

Munson (sweet) 

Northern Spy 

Ohio Nonpareil 

Oldenburg 

OUver Red 

Ralls 

Rambo 

Red Canada 

Red June 

Rhode Island 

Rome Beauty 

Roxbury 

San Jacinto 

Scott 

Stark 

Stayman Winesap 

Summer King 

Summer Rambo 

Summer Rose 

Sutton 

Sweet Russet 

Sweet Winesap 

Tolman (sweet) 

Tompkins King 

Wagener 

Wealthy 

White Pippin 

Winesap 

Winter Paradise (sweet) . 
Yellow Transparent. . . . 
York Imperial 



Early September 

Mid-September 

November-February. . 

Late August 

October-January 

Late September 

Early August 

December-April 

February-May 

October-December. . . 
November-March. . . . 

Late July 

October-December. . . . 

January-March 

February-May 

Late August 

February-May 

January-April 

January-May 

Late August 

Early September 

Late July 

November-February. . 

Early October 

November-December . 
November-January. . . 
October-December. . . 
December-February . . 

September 

February-May 

February-May 

January-March 

July 

February-May 



Culinary uses 



SHRUBBERY 401 

SHRUBBERY LIST 

The following is a list of the best hardy flowering shrubs for mass plant- 
ing. The list includes those naost easily grown, and which are very ornamental 
in planting the home grounds. These are suitable for use in himaid climates, 
both south and north. Those marked with star are also very suitable for 
hedges. The color and approximate season of bloom, or showy parts, are 
given after the name. The numbers indicate height in feet. 

Almond, flowering, rose, early, 2-.3. 

Azalea, flame-colored, orange, early, 6-7. 

♦Barberry, Japanese, red berries in winter, 3-4. 

Buddleia, hybrid, violet, summer, 4-6. 

Buffalo berry, (Shepperdia argentea), yellowish, fruit edible, 6-10. 

Burning bush, yellow, early, S-10. 

Cranberry, highbush, white, early, 7-8. 

*Deutzias, white, early, 5-S, slender 2-3. 

Dogwood, red osier, white, summer, 6-8. 

Dogwood, Siberian, nearly white, June, 6-8. 

Elder, American, white, summer, 8-12. 

Elder, golden, white, summer, 6-8. 

♦Forsythia, "golden bell," yellow, early spring, 7-8. 

Hazel nut, American, leaves purple, spring, 4-7. 

Hibiscus or rose of Sharon, various colors, late summer, 8-10. 

Honeysuckle, fragrant (semi-hardy), pink, early, 6-8. 

Honeysuckle, Tartarian, white to pink, early summer, 6-8. 

Hydrangea, large-flowered, whitish, late summer, 6-7. 

*Lilac, common purple or white, early, 6-10. 

*Lilac, Persian, purple, early, 6-8. 

Mock orange (Philadelphus), white, early summer, 6-8. 

♦Privet, California, (semi-hardy), whitish, summer, 4-10. 

♦Privet, common, whitish, summer, 4-10. 

♦Privet, iboda, fruit blue, late, 4-8. 

♦Quince, Japanese, crimson pink, spring, 4-6. 

Rhododendron, (semi-hardy), rose, summer, 8-10. 

♦Rose, Japanese, pink, white, summer, 4-6. 

Rose, prairie, pink, summer, 5-6. 

Sheepberry, (V. lentago), white, early, 8-10. 

Snowball, Japanese, and common, white, early, 6-8. 

Snowberry, white-fruited, pink, summer, 3-5. 

Spirea arguta, white, summer, 5-6. 

Spirea, bumalda, pink, summer, 2-3. 

Spirea, Thunberg's, white, early, 3-4. 

♦Spirea, Van Houtti's, white, early, 5-6. 

Sumac, (R. Canadensis), yellow, early, 3-6. 

Tamarix, pink, summer, 4-7. 

Weigelia, species white or crimson, early summer, 4-7. 



HARDY VINES WITH BEST SUPPORTS 

Akebia, (semi-hardy), twining on trellis. 

Bitter-sweet or wax-work, trellis. 

Clematis, panicled, trellis and fence. 

Clematis, Virginia, trellis and fence. 

Evonymus radicans, (spindle vine), masonry walls and stumps. 

Grapes, on fence and trellis. 

Honeysuckle, Japanese, trellis and fence. 

Ivy, Boston or Japanese, wood, brick, and stone walls and buildings. 

Ivy, English (semi-hardy) stone walls and woody surfaces. 

Pipe vine, Dutchman's pipe, trellis. 

Roses, climbing, white to red, trellises. 

Trumpet vine, hardy species, walls, stumps, etc. 

Virginia creeper, fences, trellises and old trees. 

Virginia creeper, Engleman's, brick and stone walls and buildings. 

Wisteria, American, on fence and trellis. 



INDEX 



Acme harrow, 332 
Air for plants, 2 
Almonds, 270 

acreage map, 279 
Ammoniacal copper carbonate, 306, 

320 
Analysis of seeds, 19 
Annual flowers, 379, 381 
Annuals, choice of, 379 

colors of, 381-2 

ornamental, 374, 376 
Aphids, 314, 320 
Apple, acreage map, 174 

bitter rot, 199 

borers, 196-7 

canker, 201 

chapter on, 173 

curculio, 202 

dwarf, 183 

frog-eye, 201-2 

harvesting, 186 

orchard, exposure, 173 

orchard work, 329 

packing in boxes, 190-1 

planting, 176 

rust, 200-1 

scab, 198, 309, 320 

scab remedies, 198 

soils, 173 

spraying, year's work, 333 

storage, 187 

sun scald, 201 

tree, top-worked, 187 

twig blight, 199 

varieties of, 175 
Apples, box packing, 399 

enemies of, 195 

forms of, 193 

per box, 399 

propagation of, 53 

quality of, 400 

spraying, 196 

top-working, 55 

uses of, 400 

varieties of, 400 
Apricot, 228 
April fruit and orchard work, 338, 342 

garden work, 147, 161 

home grounds in, 338, 342 
Aquarium, 7 

Arsenate of lead, 311, 320 
Arsenate of lime, 311 



Arsenic, white, 310 
Arsenite of zinc, 311 
Artichoke, globe, 118 

Jerusalem, 119 
Ashes for lime and potash, 296-7 
Asparagus, 116 

forcing, 120 
August garden work, 150, 166 

home grounds in, 340, 343 

orchard and fruit work, 340, 343 
Authors, Horticultural, referred to 

Agee, 302 

Bailey, 60, 390 

Cook, 9 

Corbett, 390 

Davis, 60, 105, 390 

Georgia, 354 

Lloyd, 80, 105, 390 

Pammel, 354 

Roberts, 302 

Sears, 60, 346, 390 

Washburn, 389, 390 

Watts 390 

Waugh, 60, 232, 346, 383, 390 

White, 390 
Avacado, figured, 277 

orchard, 278 

propagation, 278 

yield and harvest, 278 

Barn swallow, 387 
Barnyard manure, 290-1 
Barrel sprayers, 318, 322 
Baume test, 308, 397, 398 
Beans, 122 

bush, 123 

lima, 122-3 
Bedding sweet potatoes, 141 
Beets, 114 

Benefits of beautifying, 366, 375 
Berry boxes, 343 
Bird boxes, 384 
contests, 388-9 
exercises, 388-9 

nests, 384, 386 

shelf for food, 385 

studies, 388-9 

tray for food, 385 
Birds, attracting, 384 

chapter on, 384 

destroyed by dogs, 386 

feeding, 385-7 

403 



404 



INDEX 



Birds, fruit shrub.s for, 384 

in winter, 387-8 

knowing, 388 

watering, 387 
Biting insects, fighting, 312 

poisons for, 310 
Bitter rot, 199 
Blackberry enemies, 262 

locations, 258 

marketing, 262 

permanency, 262 

picking, 262 

planting, 261 

protection, 262 

pruning, 261 

section, 258 

soils, 258 

varieties, 258, 261 

uses, 262 
"Black leaf 40," 320 
Black rot of gi-apes, 250 
Blasting for orchards, 298 
Blooming seasons of flowers, 380 
Blossoming dates, 221, 232 
Blossoms, strawbeny, 234 
Blueberry' planting and care, 267 

section, 266 

soils, 267 

uses, 267 
Book authoi-s, see Authors 
Books for libraries, 390 
BordeaiLx mixture, 304-5, 320 
Border, vegetable, 65 
Borders, flower, 378 
Borers of apples, 196-7 

grapes, 249 

peaches, 215, 217, 218 
Box packing guide, 399 
Breathing by leaves, 3 
Breeding applied in garden and 
orchard, 22 

of plants, 22 

plots, 28 
Bridge grafting, 56 
Broccoli, 101 

Brown rot of cherries, 227 
peaches, 218-9 
plums, 231 
Brussels sprouts, 101 
Bucket pump, 318 
Buckwheat, wild, 353 
Bud formation, 7, 9 

scales, 7 
Budding and grafting, 49 
chip, 53 
flute, 53 
June, 51 



Buddingand grafting, materials for, 51 
methods of, 49, 60 
peaches, 50 
prong and plate, 52 
September, 50 
shield, 49, 50 
types of, 52 
Buds, fruit, 8 
kinds of, 8 
Bulblets, 36 

of hyacinth, 37 
Bulbous plants propagated, 34 
Bulbs, multiplynig by, 38 
of different types, 34, 35, 38 
winter and spring, 380 
Buttercup, division of, 36 
Building, beautified, 368, 373, 376, 
377 
tall, 367 
Buildings, planting to suit, 367 

well located, 369 
Bulletin references, end of each 

chapter 
Bush fruits, acreage map, 252 
chapter on, 252 
exercises, 269 
picking, 269 
projects, 269 
propagation, 269 
surveys, 269 

Cabbage, 98 

in flat, 91 

resistant to yellows, 100 

types of heads, 99 
Calcium, 6 
Calendar for spraying, 318, 320, 321 

of fruit work, 338, 341 

of garden work, 146, 157 
Callousing cuttings, 40 
Canker on apple, 201 

worm, 197 

wonns on apple, 313 
Canning vegetables, 119 
Cantaloupes, 127 
Carbon, 6 

Carbonate of copper, 306 
Carbon dioxide obtained by plants, 2 
Carrots, 112 
Castor beans, 376 
Catalpa seedlings, 360 
Cats destroy birds, 385 

protectionffrom, 385 
CauHflower, 101, 102 
Cedar apple, 200 

trees, 359 
Celeriac, 104 



INDEX 



405 



Celery, 102, 105 

blanching, 103 
Characteristics, power to impress, 23 
Characters, dominant, 24 

pairs of, 26, 27 

recessant, 24 
Chard, Swiss, 109 

Cherries and plums, chapter on, 222 
enemies of, 226 
picking, 226 
propagation, 51, 52, 60 
uses of, 226 
Cherry, acreage map, 223 

Montmorency, 224 

orchard cultivation, 225 

orchard location, 223 

propagation, 224 

pruning, 225 

soils, 222 

soiu-, 222 

starting the orchard, 224 

varieties, 223 
Chestnuts, 270 
Chip-budding, 53 
Chives, 109 
Chlorophyll, disappearance of, 8 

in leaves, 3, 8 
Christmas rose, 34 
Citrus fruit exercises, 278 

section, 278 
Cleft grafting, 55, 56 
Cleistagamous flowers, 13 
Clematis, panicled, 375 
Clumps of shrubs, 373 
Codhng motb, 195-6 

remedies for, 195-6 
Coldframe and hotbed, 85 
cabbage in, 86 
chapter, 81 
contest, 88 
studies, 88 
uses of, 86 
CoUards, 110 

Compressed air sprayers, 318-9 
Contact insecticides, 313, 320 
Contest in attracting birds, 388-9 

in beautifying, 382 

in fruit scoring, 192 

in seed saving, 20 

in strawberries, 240 

with hotbeds, etc., 88 
Cool season crops, 90, 91, 92, 95, 106 
Co-operative packing, 329 
Copper sulfate, 306, 320 
Corn breeding, 29 

field, 122 

improving, 29, 30, 32 



Corn breediug, pop, 122 

salad, 98 

sweet, 121 
Cost of peaches, 395 
Cover crop in gardens, 288 
peaches, 208 
vineyard, 248 
Cover crops, 74, 80, 180 
Cowpeas for orchards, 298 
Crab grass, 359 
Cranberry, care, 268 

flooding, 267 

gathering, 268 

planting, 268 

propagation, 268 

section, 267 

soUs, 267 

uses, 268 
Cress garden, 98 

upland. 111 
Cross, pollination, 12 
Crude oil emulsion, 314 
Cucumber, 126 

salting and pickling, 130 
Cultivating with horse, 162 
Cultivation of strawberries, 237 
Culture of cranberries, 268 

currants, 264 

flowers, 380 

gooseberries, 266 

grapes, 244 

orchards, 179, 300 

oranges, 281 

pineapples, 274 

years', orchard, 330 
Curculio bites, 336 

on core fmits, 202 

on plum, 217 
Currant, cultivation, 264 

enemies, 265 

fertflizing, 264 

leaf-spot, 265 

locations, 263 

maggot, 265 

mulching, 264 

picking, 264 

planting, 264 

pruning, 264 

renewals, 265 

sawfly, 265 

scale, 265 

section, 263 

soils, 263 

types and varieties, 263 
Cuttings and layerings, 39 
callousing, 40 
care of, 41 



406 



INDEX 



Cuttings and layerings, examples of ,43 

green wood, 42, 47 

hard wood, 40 

how stored, 40 

management, 44 

planting, 40 

principles of, 43 

root, 39, 47 

stems for, 39 

trees and shrubs grown from, 42, 
147 

types of, 39, 40 ,47 
Cut worms, 317 

December garden work, 156, 170 

home grounds in, 341, 345 

orchard and fruit work, 341 , 345 
De Vries, 23 
Dewberries, 263 
Diseases, blackberry, 262 

collecting, 202 

currant, 265 

fruit, 320, 321 

gooseberry, 266 

grape, 249, 250 

orange, 282 

preventing, 309 

raspberry, 257 

strawberry, 239 
Disk harrow, 331 
Dividing and transplanting, 34 
Division of roots, 33 
Dogs, damage by, 386 
Downy mildew on grapes, 249 
Drainage, 74, 80 

work by students, 154 
Drouth resistance, 236, 239 
Drying vegetables, 119 
Duster at work, 326 
Dusting potatoes, 144 

vs. spraying, 324, 325 
Dwarf apple trees, 183 

Ear-row system, 30 
Eggplant, 125-6 
Emulsions of oil, 313-4 
Endive, 112 
Enemies, combating, 202 

losses from, 202 

of apple, pear, quince, 195 

of cherries, 226 

of plants, 3 

of plums, 231 
Evaporation from leaves, 6 
Exercises at close of each chapter 

bush fruit, 269 

forest, 365 



Exercise at close of each chapter 

grape, 251 

home grounds, 382 

orchard, 221, 232 

pnining, 346 

soil improvement, 301 

spraying, 327 

strawberry, 240 

weed, 354 

with birds, 388-9 
fruit, 192 
orchard enemies, 202 

wood lot, 365 
Exhibits of fruit, 192 

garden products, 130, 153, 169 

scoring, 192 
Exposure for orchards, 173, 192, 203, 

223, 228 

Farmers' bulletins, end of each 

chapter 
Farm garden, 67, 68, 69 
February garden work, 146, 159 

home grounds in, 337, 341 

orchard work, 337, 341 
Feeding birds, 387, 389 
Fertility, forms of, 395 

from legumes, 394, 395 

removed by crops, 394 
Fertilizer, commercial, 291 

efTect in orchard, 291 

formulas, 291 

home mixtures, 292 

materials, collection of, 9 

need of, 292 
Fertilizers in gardens, 72, 73, 80 

for Irish potatoes, 133, 144 
Fertilizing currants, 264 

grapes, 245 

orchards, 180, 211, 213, 221, 232, 
291 

strawberries, 237 
Field and laboratory exercises, close 

of each chapter 
Field studies of weeds, 354 
Figs, 272 

caprification of, 273 
Fillers in orchards, 207, 210 
Five-finger, 351 
Fixation of type, 25 
Flat of cabbage, 91 
Flats in hotbeds, 82 
making, 92 
transplanting into, 93 
Flicker, 388 

Flooding cranberries, 267 
Flower borders, 378 



INDEX 



407 



Flower borders, parts of, 10, 11 

pit chapter, 81 

planting, 378 

structure shown, 11 

studies, 88 

uses, 87 

work, see each month 
Flowering tables, 380-1 
Flowers, annual, 379, 381, 382 

best use of, 380-1 

color of, 380, 381-2 

dioecious, 11 

distances for, 380-1 

heights of, 380-1 

monoecious, 11 

of several types, 11 

perfect, 11 

show of, 379 
Flute budding, 53 
Foliage plants, 382 
Food in seeds, 20 
Food supply for plants, 2 
Forcing asparagus and rhubarb, 120 
Forest benefits, 364 

carpet, 365 

harvesting, 361-2 

nursery, 360 

planting and care, 361 

profits, 363 

projects and exercises, 366 

studies, 365 
Formal gardening, 374 
Frames for beds, 85 

hotbeds, 81 
Freezing, resistance to, 105, 119 
Frog-eye on apple leaf, 201-2 
Fruit-bearing shrubs, 384, 389, 401 
Fruit barrel, press and clamp, 189 

buds, 8 

descriptions, 192 

exhibits, scoring, 192 

reminders, see months 

spurs, 181 

table for packing and sorting, 188 
Fruits, time to spray, 320 
Fungicides, using, 309, 320, 321 

Garden calendar, 146, 157 
city, 65 

cleaning up season, 171 
cover crops, 74 
cress, 98 
drainage, 74 
farm, 67-8-9 
for ail seasons, 70 
irrigation, 74-5 
planned with long rows, 158 



Garden calender, practices against in- 
sects, 317 

products, exhibits of, 130, 153, 169 

projects, 79, 130 

seeds, saving, 14 

small market, 68 

soils, 71, 80 

surveys, 79 

tenement, 377 

tillage, 72-3 

truck, 69, 79 
Gardening, 61 

back yard, 66 

door-yard, 62 

fertilizers in, 73 

horse-culture, 67 

importance of, 61 

landscape, 366 

plan for, 63, 64, 65, 68, 69, 79 

projects, 66, 79 

tools for, 62, 64, 65, 70, 75, 76, 77 
79, 108 
GarUc, 108 
Gas sprayers, 319 
Gasoline engine sprayers, 323 
Germination, conditions for, 4 

exercises in, 8 

of seeds, 3 
Glass for hotbeds, 81 
Globe artichoke, 118 
Golden rod, 352 
Gooseberry culture, 266 

enemies, 266 

harvesting and use, 266 

section, 265 

varieties, 265 
Gourds, ornamental, 375 
Grafting, 49, 53 

bridge, 56 

cleft, 55, 56 

cutting method, 57 

inlaying, 57 

saddle, 57 

shield, 57 

side, 57 

splice, 57 

tongue, 53 

top-working, 57, 60 

types of, 57, 60 

veneer, 57 

wax making, 58, 60 
Grafts, setting, 54 
Grape flea-beetle, 247 

leaf-folder, 246 

leaf -hopper, 246 

phylloxera, 249 

projects, 251 



408 



INDEX 



Grape flea-beetle, root-borer, 249 

soils, 241 

winter cover crop, 248 
Grapefruit acreage map, 279 

culture, 282 
Grapes, chapter on, 241 

cultivating, 244 

Downy mildew on, 247 

enemies of, 246 to 251 

fertilizing, 245 

from cuttings, 44, 47 

location for, 241 

marketing, 246 

packing, 246 

picking, 245 

pruning, 243 

rose chafer on, 247 

rots on, 250 

starting, 242 

trellising, 242, 248, 251 

varieties of, 241 
Green manure, 289 

manuring, 180 

wood cuttings, 42 
Greens, short season, 92 

that endure summer heat, 91 
Grounds, beautifying, 366 

cost to improve, 366 

home, 366 

plans for, 370, 372 

scoring, 382 

see each month 

well planted, 368 
Grasses for lawns, 376 

in orchards, 351 

starting, 377 
Gullying, study of, 363 

Hardwood-evergreen mixture, 360 
Hardy vegetables, 89 
Harrows, 331-2 
Harvesting apples, 186 

avocadoes 278 

blackberries, 262 

bush fruits, 269 

cherries, 226 

cranberries, 268 

currants, 264 

forest trees, 361-2 

gooseberries, 266 

grapes, 245 

ohves, 274 

oranges, 281-2 

peaches, 214, 330 

pears, 190 

pineapples, 275 

plums, 230 



Harvesting raspberries, 254 

strawberries, 238 
Hill-row improvement of potatoes, 29 

strawberries, 237 
Heading, high, 179 

height of, 178 
Hedge rows of strawberries, 236 
Hedges, formal, 374 

to plant, 371, 401 
Heeling in ti-ees, 177, 208 
Hellebore, 312 
Herbs, propagation of, 33 
Heredity, 22 
Home gardening, 61, 64 

groimds, by months, 337, 341 
chapter on, 366 
plans for, 370-1, 382 
scoring, 382 
see each month 
Home projects, garden, 66, 78, 79 

close of each chapter 
Home vegetable garden, 61 
Horse-culture gardening, 67 
Horse radish, 115 

preserving, 119 
Horticulture, books on, 390 
Hose for spraying, 323 
Hotbed becomes coldframe, 84 

contest, 88 

studies, 88 

watering, 84 
Hotbeds, chapter on, 81 

drawing of, 83 

frames for, 81 

flats for, 82 

glass for, 81, 84 

how heated, 82 

placing, 82 

ventilation of, 82 
Humus, adding, 289 

for gardens, 72 80 
Hyacinth section, 37 _ 
Hybridizing, project in, 31 
Hybrids, 24 

Hydrastis, division of, 36 
Hydrogen, 6 
Hydrometer test for sprays, 308 

tests, 397 
Hydi'ophytes, 2 

Improvement in plants, need of, 27 
Impurities, identifying, 20 
Inlaying, 57 

Inoculating for legumes, 287 
Insect enemies fighting, 309, 317, 331 
320 
of blackberries, 262 



INDEX 



409 



Insect enemies, of currants, 2G5 
of gooseberries, 266 
of grapes, 246 
of oranges, 282 
of raspberries, 256 
of strawberries, 239 
Insecticides, contact, 313, 320, 321 

poison, 310, 320, 321 
Insects, collecting, 202 
practices against, 317 
special fighting for 317 
spraying for, 310, 312, 316, 320 
Inspection form, 59 
Inter-cropping orchards, 179, 192, 

208, 209 
Inter-tillage, 299 
Irish potatoes, 132 
Irrigation, 74, 75, 80, 281 
of orchards, 183-4 
orange groves, 281 

January garden work, 146, 157 
home grounds in, 337, 341 
orchard work, S37, 341 

Jerusalem artichoke, 119 

Johnson grass, 349 

Judging home gardens, 78 
home grounds, 382 
strawberries, 240 

July garden work, 149 
home gi'oimds in, 339. 343 
orchard and fruit work, 339, 343 

June garden work, 149, 164 
home grounds in, 339, 342 
orchard and fruit work, 339, 342 

Ivale, 112 
sea, 118 
Kerosene emulsion, 313, 320, 321 
Knapsack pump, 318 
Knife, pruning, 335 
Kohl rabi, 101 

Labor, economy of, 61 

Laboratory exercises, close of each 

chapter 
Ladder for picking fruit, 187 
Landscape gardening, 366 
Lawns, care of, 377, 341 

grasses for, 376 

see months 

starting, 377 
Layerings, 39, 44 

mound, 46 

pot, 47 

planting, 44 

rooting, 44 



Layerings, tip, 45 

vine, 44, 45 
Leaf, cross section of, 4 

function and structure, 3 

structure, 8, 9 
Leaves, evapoz-ation from, 6 

unportance of, 6 
Leeks, 108 
Legumes as winter covers, 288 

furnish nitrogen, 394-5 

inoculatmg, 287 

section on, 286 

value of, 286 
Lemons, acreage map, 279 

culture of, 284 
Lenticle spots, 6 
Lettuce, 96, 104 
Library, books for, 390 
Light requirements of plants, 3 
Like and imlike, survival of, 22 
Lime, burned, 296-7 

chart, 297 

danger of, 296 

forms of, 296-7 

ground stone, 296-7 

hydrated, 296-7 

uses of, 295, 297 
Liming garden soil, 72, 80 

of soils, 295 

projects, 301 
Limes, acreage map, 279 

growth of, 284 
Lime-sulfur,commercial,308,316,320 
dilutions, 397-8 
for scab, 309 
home boiled, 307 
self-boiled, 308 
spraying with, 326 
testing, 308 
vs. Bordeaux, 303 
Livers of sulfur, 306 
London purple, 311 
Longevity of seeds, 17 

Manure and humus, 72, 80 

barnyard, 290 

cautions in using, 291 

composting, 290 

green, 289 

surveys, 301 
Mangoes, 275-6-7 
Maple sugar and syrup, 256 
March garden work, 147, 160 

home grounds in, 338, 342 

orchard and fruit work, 338, 342 
Marker for garden, 65 
Market garden, 68-9 



410 



INDEX 



Marketing blackberries, 262 

fruits, 192 

grapes, 246 

oranges, 281, 283, 285 

pineapples, 275 

vegetables, etc., 148 
Materials for budding, 51 

spraying, 303, 320 
Matted row of strawberries, 236 
May garden work, 148, 163 

home grounds in, 339, 342 

orchard and fruit work, 339, 342 
Mendel's law, 25 
limits of, 26 
results of, 26 
Mesophytes, 2 
Methods of pollination, 20 
Mice, 56, 58 

protection against, 198 
Miscible oils, 315 
Mixtures of fertilizers, 292 
Moisture for plant growth, 1, 2 
Mound layering, 46 

and root division, 47 
examples of, 46 
Mulch for currants, 264 

for strawberries, 236, 239 

of loose soil, 299 
Mushrooms, 129 
Muskmelons, 127, 128 
Mustard, 97, 351 

Nests for birds, 384, 388 

protect, 389 
Nicofume, 315, 321 
Nicotine sulfate, 315, 321 • 
Nitrate of soda, 293 
Nitrogen, 6, 286-7 

from legumes, 394-5 

-gathering bacteria, 287-9 

in air, 8 

sources of, 282 
November garden work, 154, 169 

home grounds in, 340, 345 

orchard and fruit work, 340, 345 
Nozzles for spraying, 324 

work of, 325 
Nursery, a cherry, 60 

a peach, 60 

a plum, 60 

and orchard projects, 60 

forest, 360 

inspection, 58 
form, 59 

of apples and pears, 60 

problems, 58 
Nuts, chapter on, 270 



Nuts, exercises, 285 

October garden work, 152, 168 

home grounds in, 340, 344 

orchard and fruit work, 340, 344 
Oil emulsions, 313-4 
Oils, miscible, 315 
OUves, 273-4 

acreage map, 279 
Okra, 125 
Onion group, 91 
Onions, 106-7 

curing, 109 

types, 110 
Orchard, avocado, 278 

blasting, 298 

cherry, 203-4 

culture, 179, 230, 300, 301, 331 

diseased and starved, 186 

enemies, 202, 224-5 

fertUizers, 180, 211, 213 221, 232 

fillers, 207, 210 

harrows, 331-2 

inter-cropping, 179, 192, 208 

mango, 277 

olive, 274 

peach, 205-6 

plum, 229 

projects, 192 

renovation, 184 

spraying, 303 

weeds, 351 

work by months, 337, 341 

years' work, 329, 330 
Oranges, 278 

acreage map, 279 

culture, 281 

enemies, 282 

grove, 281 

harvesting and marketing, 281-2 

packing, 283 

propagation, 280 

pruning, 280 

setting, 280 

Valencia, 280 
Organic matter, adding, 289 
Ornamentals, growing, .?>75 
Osmosis apparatus, 6 

by roots, 5 

experiments, 8 
Oxygen, 6 

for plants, 2, 8 
Oyster shell lime, 296, 297 

Packing apples in boxes, , 190-2, 399 

cherries, 226 

co-operative, 329 

peaches, 212, 214-5 
Para-dichloro-benzine, 217 



INDEX 



411 



Paris green, 310 
Parsley, 111 
Parsnip, 113 
Peach, acreage map, 203 
browTi rot of, 218-9 

chapter on, 203 

fertilizers, 211, 213 

leaf curl, 219 

orchard, exposure, 203-4 
laying out, 206, 209, 210 

packing, 212, 214-5 

pruning, 209, 212-4 

scab, 219 

soil, 204-5 

trees, as fillers, 207, 210 
borers, 215, 217, 218 
getting, 206-7 
June budded, 206-7 
September budded, 206-7 

varieties, 205 

yellows, 219 
Peaches, cost of, 395 

improving, 27, 32 

picking, 330 

propagation of, 50, 60 

thinned, 344 
Pear, acreage map, 174 

enemies of, 195 

harvesting, 190, 192 

nursery, 60 

propagation of, 53 

pruning, 189, 191 

section on, 189 

soils, 189 

spraying, 196 

twig blight, 199 

varieties, 189 
Peas, early, 92 

English garden, 96, 105 
Pecans, 271 
Pedigreed seed, 27 
Peony, propagation of, 34 
Perennial flowers, 380 

vegetables, 92, 115 to 119 
Perennials, choice of, 379 
Peppers, sweet, 90, 124 
Pests in seeds, 15 

to spray, 320 
Phosphate, acid, 293 
Phosphoric acid, sources, 294 
Phosphorous, 6 

forms of, 395 

properties of, 9 
Picking apples, 186 
Pickling, 130 
Pineapples, 274 

field, 275 



Pineapples, harvesting and marketing, 
275 

propagation, 274 

soils and culture, 274 
Pine trees, 358-9 
Pistil, 11, 12 
Pits for flowers and vegetables, 87 

project, 88 

special uses, 87 
Plan for planting orchards, 177 

garden, 63, 64, 65, 69, 79 
Plans for home grounds, 366, 382 

poor and good, 370-1 
Plant breeding, principles of, 22 

enemies, 3 

food, available, 8 
supply, 2, 6 

growth, conditions for, 1 

lice on apples, 320 
on melons, 314 

life, chapter on, 1 

parts of, 4 

societies, 2 
Plantain, buckhorn, 348 
Planting, annuals, 374, 376 

an orchard tree, 178 

apple orchards, 176 

blackberries, 261 

blueberries, 267 

board, 178 

bush fruits, 269 

by colors, 381-2 

cranberries, 268 

currants, 263 

flowers, 378 

forest trees, 361, 365 

grapes, 242 

hedges, 371 

home grounds, 366-7 

oranges, 280 

plan for apples, 176-7 

plans for strawberries, 235, 240 

raspberries, 253 

rate of, for potatoes, 136 

shade trees, 369 

shrubs, 370 

tables, 88, 92, 93, 380, 381, 396 

vines, 372 
Plants, air for, 2 

carbon dioxide for, 2 

foliage, 382 

influenced by surrovmdings, 23 

importance of, 1 

Hght for, 3 

lists of, 380, 381, 382, 401 

oxygen for, 2, 8 

propagation of, 10, 33 
Plate "budding, 52 



412 



INDEX 



Plowing, deep, 298 

fall, 298 

repacking after, 299 

spring, 298 
Plum, acreage map, 227 

American, 228 

brown rot of, 231 

curculio, 217 

exposure, 228 

Golden Beauty, 229 

harvesting, 230 

insect enemies of, 231 

Milton, 229 

orchard culture, 230 
starting, 229 

pruning, 229 

Simon, 228 

types and varieties, 228 
Plums, propagation of, 51, GO 

section on, 227 

soils for, 227 

stocks for, 51 

uses of, 231 
Poison sprays. 
Pollen, how carried, 13 
Pollination and bagging, 31 

artificial, 31 

by insects, 12, 13, 20 

by wind, 13 

cross, 12, 13 

methods of, 11, 20 

self, 11, 12, 13 

tools for, 31 

underground, 13 
Pomelo, see grapefruit, 282 
Pop-corn, 122 
Potash, sources of ..294 
Potassium, 6 

forms, 395; properties, 9 

permanganate, 251, 306 

sulfide, 306 
Potato, project, 143 

seed, quantity of, 38 

varieties and types, 393 

yields, 28, 393 
Potatoes, Burbank, 135 

chapter on, 132 

Cobbler, 135 

culture of, 137, 144 

cutting, 134 

dusting, 144 

fertiUzer for, 133, 140 

good and poor seed, 24 

harvesting, 139 

improving, 28 

Irish, 132 

planting, 136 



Potatoes, rate of planting, 135-6, 144 

seed, 134, 144 

soils for, 132, 140 

spraying, 138 

sprouting seed, 136-7 

storing, 139, 144 

sweet, 140 

treating for scab, 136, 144 

varieties, 134 
Pot layering, 47 
Prepotency, 23 
Prickly lettuce, 350 
Project, close of each chapter 

bush fruit, 269 

fertilizer, 301 

forest, 365 

garden, see each month 

garden, 79, 130 
score card, 78 

grape, 251 

home grounds, 382 

in crop growing, 301 

in drainage, 154 

in soil management. 301 

orchard, 192, 221, 232, 346 

spraying, 327 

strawberry, 240 

weed, 354 

with potatoes, 143 
Prong-budding, 52 
Propagation, by true roots 37 

by underground parts, 33 

of apples, 53, 55, 00 

of avocado, 278 

of bulbous plants, 34 

of bush fruits, 269 

of cherries, 51, 60, 224 

of cranberries, 268 

of mangoes, 276 

of olives, 273 

of oranges, 280 

of peaches, 50, 60 

of pineapples, 274 

of plants, 10, 33 

of plums, 51, 60 
Properties of phosphorous and potas- 
sium, 9 
Props for trees, 179 
Protection of blackberries, 262 

of cranberries, 267 

of raspberries, 254 
Pruning, blackberries, 261 

before planting, 177 

currants, 264 

exercises, 346 

good and bad, 182 

grapes, 243 



INDEX 



413 



Pruning, oranges, 280 

peaches, 209. 211, 213 

pears, 189, 191 

plums, 229 

raspberries, 254, 255 

saws, 334 

shears, 76 

summer, 213 

the orchard, 180-1 

tools, 335 

years', 333 
Pulsatilla, division of, 35 
Pumpkins, 129 
Purslane, 348 
Pyrethrum, 316 

Questions at close of each chapter 
Quince, culture, 191 

enemies of, 195 

section on, 190 

twig blight, 199 
Quahty of apples, 400 

Rabbits, 56, 58, 59 

and mice, protection against, 198 

trap for, 59 
Eadishes, 95 
Rag doll tester, 18 
Rake, garden, 77 
Raspberries, propagation of, 45 

section on, 252 
Raspberry, crown gall, 258 

diseases, 257 

harvesting, 254 

hill system, 256 

insects, 256 

locations, 253 

planting, 253, 257 

projects, 269 

pruning, 254-5 

soils, 253 

training, 254 

uses, 256 

varieties, 253 

winter protection, 254 
Reference library, 390 
References to books and bulletins, see 

end of each chapter 
Rejuvenated Baldwin orchard, 185 
Renovating old orchards, 184-5 
Renovation, steps in, 184 
Reversion, 23 
Rhubarb, 115 

forcing, 120 
Ripe wood cuttings, 40 
Ripening dates, 232 
Rod for spraying, 323 



Romaine, 96 

Root crops and tubers, 91 

cuttings, 39 

division, 33, 38, 47 
Root hairs shown, 6 
structure of, 5 
work of, 5 
Rooting layers, 44 
Roots, absorption by, 5 

osmosis in, 5 

propagation by, 37, 47 
Rose chafer, 247 

mildew, 251, 306 
Rotation in gardens, 165, 171 
, Rust on apples and cedars, 200 

Salsify, 114 

Salting cucumbers, 130 

San Jose scale, 215-6 

Sauerkraut, 105 

Saws, pruning, 334 

Scab, apple, 198, 309, 320 

potato, 136-7 
Scale insects, 215-6 
Scoring home grounds, 382 
Sea kale, 118 

Seasonal work by months, 337, 341 
Seed, analysis, 19 

crop, securing, 15 

effect of weight of, 30 

formation, 20 

laboratories, 350 

large and small, 25 

pedigrees, 27 

potatoes, 134, 144 
cutting, 135 
improving, 28, 31 
planting, 135 
sprouting, 137 
treating, 136 

samples, impurities in, 19 

saving contest, 20 

selection, 15 

sources in America, 15, 16 

testers, 18 

trial grounds, 15, 16 
Seeds, analysis of, 19 

buying, 16, 19 

choice of, 20 

detecting age of, 17 

food in, 20 

for market, 20 

forest, 365 

garden, 14 

germination of, 3 

growth of, 14 

how produced, 10 



414 



INDEX 



Seeds, infested with pests, 15 

longevity of, 17 

nourishment in, 14 

storing, 15 

testing, 18 

weight of, 32 

why produced, 10 
Selection, by growers, 30 

careful, 24 

in plant breeding, 24 
September garden work, 151, 167 

home grounds in, 340, 344 

orchard and fruit work, 340, 344 
Shallot, 108 
Shears, pruning, 335 
Shelter belts, 358 
Shield-budding, 49 ,50 

of peaches, 50 
Shrubs and plants per acre, 396 

from cuttings, 42, 47 

fruit-bearing, 384, 389 

in clumps, 366 

propagation of, 33, 38 

to plant, 370, 401 
Sifting and weighing seeds, 30 
Size and weight of seed, 30 
Smartweed, Pennsylvania, 353 
Soaps for spraying, 315 
Sod-mulch system, 300 
Soil, adding humus, 72 

amendments, 286-301 

clods of, 72 

influence of, 33 

liming, 72 

modifying, 72 

mulch, 299 

types, 71 
Soils, for apples, 173 

blackberries, 258 

blueberries, 267 

cherries, 222 

cranberries, 267 

currants, 263 

gooseberries, 266 

grapes, 241 

Irish potatoes, 132 

mangoes, 276 

peaches, 204-5 

pears, 189 

pineapples, 274 

plums, 227 

raspberries, 253 

strawberries, 233, 240 

sweet potatoes, 140 

wooa lot, 256 

garden 71, 80 

packing, 299 



Soils, preparing potato, 133 
Soybeans with bacteria, 287, 289 
Spinach, 97 

New Zealand, 111 
Spirea, 373 
Sports, 23 
Spray, calendar, 318, 320, 321 

hose and rod, 323 

materials for potatoes, 138, 144 

nozzles, 324 
Sprayer, barrel, 318, 322 

bucket, 318 

compressed air, 318-9 

gas, 319 

hand, 318 

knapsack, 318 

tank, 319, 322-3 
Spraying, campaigns, 328-9, 330, 333, 
336 

equipment, 318 

exercises, 327-8 

for bhght and beetles, 138, 144 

high pressure, 325 

improves quality, 304 

materials, 303, 320 

principles of, 303, 320 

projects, 303, 327 

vs. no spraying, 327 
Sprays, contact, 313 

poison, 310 
Spring greens, 91, 92 

vegetables, 95 
Spruce trees, 359 
Squash, culture, 128 

vines on fence, 150 
Stamens, 11, 12 
Starch, grains, 20 

made by plants, 3 
State, analysis of seeds, 19 

seed regulations, 20 
Stem, cross section, 5 
Stocks for propagation, 50-3 
Stone fruits, annual campaign, 329 

spraying, 336 
Storage of vegetables, 119 
Storing, apples, 187, 192 

potatoes, 139, 144 

sweet potatoes, 143-4 
Strawberries, acreage map, 233 

blossoms, 234 

chapter on, 233 

contests, 240 

culture of, 237 

enemies of, 239 

fertilizer for, 237 

forcing, 240 

in pots, 240 



INDEX 



415 



Strawberries, judging, 240 
location for, 233 
mulch for, 236, 239 
picking, 238 

plans for growing, 235-7, 240 
replanting, :^39 
runners of, i40 
soils, 233 
varieties, 234 
Strawberry, improving the, 27 

runners, 46 
Streams, forestry effects on, 365 
Sweet corn, 121 
Sweet potato, culture, 142, 144 
enemies, 142 
plant, 142 
storage, 143 
Sweet potatoes, 140 
harvesting, 142 
starting, 140, 144 
transplanting, 141 
Swiss chard, 129 
Subtropical fruits, 270 

exercises, 285 
Suckers, propagation by, 33, 38 
Sucking insects, fighting, 312, 316 
Sun scald of trees, 201 
Surveys, bush fruit, 269 
cherry and plum, 232 
garden, 79 
grape, 251 
hotbed, 88 
manure, 301 
of cultural methods, 104 
orchard, 192, 221 
potato, 143 
spraying, 327 
strawberry, 240 
Survival of like and unlike, 22 

Table, box packing guide, 399 

cost of peaches, 395' 

flower, 380-1 

fruit, 189 

of apple packing, 399 
apple varieties, 400 
fertility removed, 394 
fertilizers, 394-5 
lime-sulfur, 397-8 
planting distances, 396 
plants per acre, 396 
vegetable varieties, 391-2 

planting, 88, 92, 93, 380, 381 

potato, 393 

spraying, 320, 321 

tomato, 392 



Tank sprayer, 319, 322-3 
Taxation, relief from, 363 
Temperature for plants, 1 
Tender vegetables, 89, 121 
Tent caterpillar, 197 
Testing seeds, 18, 20 
Thinned peaches, 344 
Thinning fruit, 182 

objects of, 182, 214 
Tillage, 73, 80 

implements, 63, 70, 72 
practices, 301 

section on, 297 

systems for orchards, 300-1 
Tip layering, 45, 47 
of raspberries, 45 
plants from, 45 
Tobacco dust, 316,. 320 

extract, 316 
Tomato varieties, 124, 392 

yields, 392 
Tomatoes, 123-4 

improving, 28 

staked, 89, 392 

transplanting, 124 

tying up, 125 
Tools for gardening, 62, 75-7, 79, 

108, 154 
Top working trees, 55, 60, 187 

by budding, 56 
Tongue grafting, 53 

of apples, 53 
Towers for spraying, 323 
Trap for rabbits, 59 
Transpiration, 7 
Transplanting, 34 

autumn crops, 90 

crops for, 88-9 

dates for, 88 

distances, 88 

effects of, 124 

layered plants, 44 

machine, 143 

spring crops, 90 

sweet potatoes, 141, 143 

warm season crops, 89, 92 
Transplanted plants, 87, 88, 92, 143 
Tree guards for cats, 385 
Trees, along streams, 357, 364 

and shrubs at home, 355 

benefits of, 364 

for forest planting, 359 
high buildings, 373 
shade, 369 

grown from cuttings, 42 

growth of, 58-9 



416 



INDEX 



Trees, harvesting, 361-2 

heeling in, 177, 208 

knowing the, 365 

on rocky areas, 375 

on poor land, 363 
Trellising grapes, 242-8, 251 

raspberries, 254 
Trips to orchards, 346 
Truck garden, 69, 79 
Tubers and rootrcrops, 91 
Turnips, 99, 105 
Type, fixing, 25-6 
Types of bulbs, 34-5 

flowers, 11 

Upland cress, 111 

U. S. bulletins, end of each chapter 

Variation, caases of, 22 

extreme, 30 

extreme or sudden, 23 

studying, 30 
Varieties, of apples, 175, 192, 400 

of blackberries, 258, 261 

of cherries, 223 

of currants, 263 

of gooseberries, 265 

of grapes, 241 

of oranges, 280 

of peaches, 205 

of pears, 189, 192 

of plums, 223 

of potatoes, 134, 391 

of raspberries, 253 

of strawberries, 234 

of vegetables, 391 

study of, 104 
Variety trials, 232 
Vegetable, border, 65 

gardening, 61 

market, 148 

varieties, 391 

work, see each month 
Vegetables, autumn, 90, 95 

canning, 119 

cool spring, 90, 92, 95 

cultural methods, 104 

drying, 119 

effect of heat on, 119 

food losses of, 394 

forcing, 120 

hardy, 89 

perennial, 92, 115-119 

resistance to freezing, 119 

storage, 119, 139 

table of, 88, 92-3 



Vegetables, tender, 89 

uses of, 104 

warm season, 89, 92 
Veneer grafting, 57 
Ventilation of hotbeds, 82 
Vine layering, 44, 47 
Vines to plant, 372, 401 
Vineyard, see grapes, 241-251 
Violet, liidden blossoms of, 14 

Walks in gardens, 151 
Walnuts, acreage map, 279 

English, 271-2 

native, 271 
Warm season crops, 89, 90, 92, 121 
Waniith for plant growth, 1 
Watering birds, 387, 389 
Watermelons, 127-8 
Wax making, 58, 60 
Weed control laboratories, 350 
Weeds, chapter on, 347 

control of, 349 

collections, 354 

dissemination of, 348 

escaped, 354 

groups of, 354 

in orchards, 351 

identifying, 354 

losses from, 351 

of neighbors, 354 

seeds, 354 

special fighting, 354 

type and control, 347 
Weight of seeds, 32 
White, arsenic, 310 

clover with bacteria, 288 

pines for lumber, 358 
Wheel hoe, 63, 79 

double, 108, 161 
Wind breaks, 358 
Winter, preparation for, 6, 9 
Wood lot, exercises, 365 
home, 355 
location, 356-7, 363 
of maples, 356 
products, 355-6 
projects, 365 
soils, 356 
tax exempt, 363 
Woods, collection of, 365 
Woody stem, cross section of, 5 
Wren house, 389 

Xerophytes, 2 

Yellows of peach, 219, 220 



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